AMERICAN JOURNAL "a n OF V SCIENCE AND ARTS. 'AMES D. DANA, B. SILLIMAN, and E. S. DANA. FESSORS H. A. NEWTON, S. W. JOHNSON, GEO. J. BRUSH AND A. E. VERRILL, OF NEW HAVEN, EDWARD C. PICKERING, op Boston. THIRD SERIES. \'()L. XI-[WHOLE NUMBKH, CXL] JANUARY TO JUNE, 1876. W HAVEN: EDITO] 1876 OOISTTEJ^TS OF VOLUME XT. NUMBER LXI. Art. I.— Contributions to Meteorology; by Elias Loomis,.. II. — Studies on Magnetic Distribution ; by H. A. Rowland, III— On Recent Researches in Sound ; by Wm. B. Taylok, IV.— Effect of Temperature on the Power of Solutions of Quinine to rotate Polarized Light; by J. C. Draper,. Wolf and an Extinct Species of Deer from the Lead Region of the Upper Mississippi ; by J. A. Allen, Od the Condensability of the gaseous Products of t: shales, Coleman, 51. — On the Medico-legal determination of Arsenic, Gaxjtier. "" " ■ " "■ ■ ' " ■ " ;xjgEL, 63.— On the supposed new , .. Compounds containing Arsenic, M.ICHAELIS: On Diaoetone-alcohol, Heintz, 54. — A new relation between Elec- tricity and Light, Kerr, 55. — Waves on Mercury, Dechaeme : Spectrum of the light of the blue Grotto of Capri, Vogel, 56. — Action of Magnetism on an Electric Spark, Becquerel: Interference Fringes, Nodot, 57.— The Wind Theory of Oceanic Circulation, by James Croll, 58. Geology and Mineralogy. — On the Gravel and Cobble-stone deposits of Virginia and "' ' ' "" '■ "^ ^ . . .. ^ , "cal Survey Rogers, 60.— Report of the Geologic . Kerr, 61.— Second Geological Survey of 1 -The Vertebrata c China, Brongniart, 66.— The Uawn of life, b and Geological Surveys, WiiiTXEY: Descriptive uatoiogue oi tne specimens m the Museum of Melbourne, Ulrich, 67.— Geology of lUinois : Geological map of the United States and Canada, Bradley: Emieitung in die Krystallberech- nung, Klein: On Troilite, by J. L. Smith, 68. ^tany and Zoology. — Vorlesungen iiber Dendrologie, Karl Koch: Insectivorous Plants. Darwin, 69.— The Movements and Habits of Chmbing Plants, Parwin, 1 Wege der heatii.'en Entwickelungsgeschichte : Memoirs -Reports on the Meteorol " ~ - , 76.-M bottom and Zoologv of the deep sea. Challenger's Observa Report of an Expedition up the Yellowstone River: Preliminarj NUMBER LXIL Edmond Logan,. X. Xew Form of Lantern Galvanometer ; by F. E. Niphek, 1 XI. — New occurrence of Tartronic Acid, with remarks on the molecular structure of Glyceric Acid ; by S. P. Sadtler, 1 XIL— Note on the " Chloritic formation " on the western l)order of the New Haven iJegion ; by Jamt^s T). Dana, 1 XIIL— Rocks of the '' Chloritic formation" on the Western Border of the New Haven region ; by G. W. Hawes, 1 XIV.— On a new Tertiary Lake Basin ; by George B. CiRiN- ^ELLand Edward S. Dana, 1 XV.— I. On the Product of the action of Potassium on Ethyl Succinate ; by Ira Kemsex, 1 II. On the action of Ozone on Carbon Monoxide ; by Ira Rei\isk>j^ and M. S, Southworth, 1 XVI. — On the Optical Character of the Chrondrodite of the Tilly Foster Mine ; by Edward S. Dana, ] XVII.— On Ilermannolite, a new species of the Columbian group ; by Charles Upham PENDix.— XVIII.— Principal Cli Appendix. — XVIII. — Principal Chai-acters of the Dinocerata; by O. C. Marsh,.. 163 . SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics. — On the Didyraium absorption-spectrum and the Atomic weight of uenum, Buhkig : On the Density of Platinum, of Iridium and of their alloys. Sainte-Claire Deville and Debray : New method of Chlorinating Hy- drocarbons, Aronheim, 142.— On the efleet of mass on the Chemical action of Water, Ostwald : Formation of Alizarin by Reduction of Rufigallic Acid. Wid- MAN, 143. — On the Separation of Mixed Liquids, Dticlaux : Stationary Liquid Waves. GuTHEiE, 144. — Waves in Elastic Tube.s, Mabey, 145. — Transparency of Flame and of the Air, Allaed ; Etheric Force of Edison, Houston. 146. Geology and Mineralogy. — U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territo- ries, Hayden. 147.— Drift formation and Gold in Missouri, Broadhead : Glacial strife nori;h of Lake Ontario, Chapman : New Fucoid from the Water-lime Group of Western New York, Grote and Pitt : Petrifaction, 150. — Green Mountains: Geology of New Caledonia, iol.-Achrematite, a new mineral, Mallett: Schraufite: Seebachite, Rath, 1o2.--A new species of Dalmania, 153. Botany and Zoology.— Nawliu on the Nature of Heredity and Variability in Plants, 1 57.— Use of the hygiometric twisting of the feiil to the carpels of Erodium : The Lemurs not related to the Monkeys : Fauna of the Greenland Seas, 159. Astrommy. — New Planet: Harvard Observatory Engravings: The Uranian and Neptunian Systems investigated with the 1 6-inch Equatorial of the U. S. Obser- vatory, Newcomb, 159. Miscellaneous Scientific Jntelligence. — Report on the Compressive Strength, Specific Gravity, and Ratio of Absorption of Building Stones in the United States, GitL- MORE; Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, South Kensington : Works on the Paleontology of the Rocky Mountain Surveys in progress, 160.— Geological Map of the 40th ParaUel Survey: Depth of the North Pacific, 161.— An Iceland chain of elevations in the North Atlantic: NUxMBER LXIII. XIX.— On the Veiled Solar Spots ; by L. Trouve! -Structure of Obolella chromatica ; by E. Bili>ing — On the Damming of Stn ^ ^ •-. • i • melting of the great Glacie XXII.— Sliding PViction on an Inclined Plane ; A. S. Kimball, 181 XXIII. — On the constitutional formuUe of Urea, Uric Acid, and their derivatives ; by J. W. Mallet, 185 XXIV.— On Flint-implements from the Stratified Drift of the vi<-.inity of Richmond, Va; by Cilvrles M. Wallace, 105 XXV.— Description of a new Trilobite, Dalmanites dentata; by S. T. Barbett, 200 XXVI- -On the Samarskite of Mitchel Comity, North Caro- lina ; by Edward S. Dana, . . . . 201 XXVII.— Effect of Silicic Acid upon the estimation of Phos- phoric acid by Ammonium Molybdate ; E. H. Jexkins, _ 204 XXVIII. — On the youngest Huronian Rocks south of Lake and the age of the Copper-bearing Series ; by Brooks, 206 XXIX.— On a new Method of measuring the Velocity of Elec- tricity ; bv Joseph Lovering, ..- . 211 Appendix.— XXX.— Principal Characters of the Tillodontia; byO. C. Marsh, 249 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics. — Problems in Chemical Dynamics, Berthelot, 214. — Action of Light on Silver Bromide, Vogei., 215.— Corrosion of Platinum stills by Sulphuric Acid, Schburbr-Kestneb : Production of a Secondary Hezyl Alco- hol, Oechsner de Coninck, 216.— Rosolic Acid, Graebe and Card, 217.— Syn- thesis of Betaine, Griess: New Acid isomeric with Alizarin, Schukk and Roe- uperior £ '. B. Bro ""b^A. and Mineralogy. — Supposed Agency of Ice-Floes in the Champlain Period, Second Report c of the State of Georgia, by G. Little, 229.— Geological S WoRTHEN, Director, etc., vol. vi: U. S. Geological Survey ot the Territories under Dr. P. V. IUydex. 2:^ L— Geological Sketches by L. Agassiz: Geological Survey of Victoria, Report of Progress, R. B. Smtth. 232.— Glacial phenomena along the Kittatinny or Blue Mountain : Wisconsin Geological Survey : Frequency of Earthquakes relatively to the age of the Moon, A. Perrey, 233. — Fossil Fishes of the Devonian of Tula, H. Trautschold; Occurrence of native Zinc: Brookite: Serpentines of Zoblitz Greifendorf and Waldheim. J. Lemberg, 234.— Selwyn- ite, Noumeite, Garnierite, G. H. F. Ulricfi : Errata to Manual of Geology of J. D. Dana, 235. Botoni/.— Notes on Agave, by Geo. Engelmanx, 23.^.— Structure of the Leaves of Grasses, J. Ddval-Jouve, 237. — Botryopteris Forensis; SUicified fossil Fruits or Seeds: Respiration of Plants, Mater and Wolkoff, 238.— Cb Nostochineae: Gymocladus in China: Flora Brasiliensis : Das Hs Loranthaceen und der Thalhis der Rafflesiaceen und Bs ' Movements and Habits of Climbing Plant.", C. Darwin, Astronomy. — A seri " ' ' • ^^ - - - Our Place among s Sctentific 1, mts in their Academy of Science : ADiiual Report of the Chief of Engineers to the Secretary of War, for 1875, 243. — Annr.al Report upon the Geographical Explorations and Surveys west of the 100th Meridian ; by O. M. Wheeleb, 244— Geological Sur- vey of the Territories, F. V. Haydex, 245.— Specific gravity Balance of R. Parish: Yorlf, 247.— Summer ScJiools of Zoology and Geology at' Cornell University: 248. — Obituary. — George Poulett Serope, 248. NUMBER LXIV. Akt. XXXI.— On the Gases contained in Meteorites; by ^^^' Abthuk W. Wekiht, 253 XXXII.— Review of Croll's Climate and Time with especial reference to the Physical Theories of Climate maintained therein ; by Simon 'New(^omb, 263 XXXIII. —On crystals of Tourmaline with enveloped Ortho- , by EDWAito II. Willi -The Conglon XXXIV.— The Conglomerate Series of West Virginia ; by WiLLiAii M. Fontaine, 276 XXXV.— Resnlts of Experiments on the Set of bars of Wood, Iron, and Steel, after a Transverse Stress; by Wm. a. Norton, ._.. 284 XXXVI.— On the constitutional forrnuhe of Urea, Uric Acid, and their derivatives (concluded) ; by J. W. Mallett, 291 XXXVII — Evidences of horizontal crushing in the formation of the Coast Range of California; by Joseph Le Conte, 297 X XXVI II. — Description of Mancasellus hrachyurus, a new fresh-water Isopod ; by O. Hargek, 304 XXXIX.— Professor Tyndall on Germs, .... 305 XL.— Discovery of a new Planet ; by C. H. F. Peters. 317 Appendix. — XLL- -Principal Characters of the Brontothe- ridm ; by ( ). C. Marsh, 335 SCIKNTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Ghtiiiistry and Physics. — On a Crystallized Hydrate of Hydrochloric acid, Piebhe and Puchot: On the decomposition of Water by Platinum, DEViHEand Debr.\t, 3 1 8. — On a new compound of Sulphur and Oxygen, R. Webek : On the Purifl- BAUDRAN : Conductivity of Gases. M. A. Winkelma.nn, 320. — Thermal Properties of Liquids. M. Pictet : Dependence of Electricd Resistance on the Motion of tlie Conductor, M. Edluxd, 321. —Electric Spark with large Batteries, De la Rvk and MULLEK, 322— Acoustics, A. M. Matee, 324. Botany and Zoology.— Soxamc&l Contributions, 32.5.— Botanical Necrology: Life markable forms of Animal Life from the great deeps off the Norwegian Coast, etc.. by George 0. Sars, 328. — A Course of Practical Instruction in I'-lementary Biology, by Huxley andMARTix: Crustacea of Mexico and Central America, by M. A. Milne-Edwards : Cumacea from great depths in the Arctic Ocean, by G. O Saes, 329. — Moa or Dinomis of New Zealand : Carnivorous Reptiles having some features of Carnivorous Mammals, from the Triassic (?) of South Africa, Prof. Owen: The Crustacean. Artemia salina, changed in some of its ; the U. S. Observatory, Rear-Admiral B. F. Sands, Superinten y Tables for determining the angle of position of the sun's axis, 3 to Life, by WAtTEE N. Hartley : Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, F. V. Hatden ia charge : Compressed Peat : Report of the Superin- tendent of the U. S. Coast Survey, 332.— Obituary.— l. A. Lapham, 333.— Rev. Augustus Wing, 334. NUMBER LXV. Art. XLII. — On supposed changes in the Nebula M. 17= h. 2008=G. C. 4403; by Edwaed S. Holden, 341 XLIIL— On the effect of thin plates of Iron used as armatures for Electro-Magnets, and a new form of Induction Coil ; by John Tkowbridgk, .- 361 XLIV. — Concerning Phosphorus Oxychloride ; by Ira Rem- s-EN,. 365 XLV. — On additional species of Fossils from the Primordial of Troy and Lansingburgh, Rensselaer County, " "'. W. Ford, I simple and very ; I Forks to unison ; by Robert Spice, . by S. W. Ford, .VI.— O] imple and very accurate method of tuning XLVIL — Silica of grasses and other plants carried up as Di- atoms or other siliceous grains, and not in solution or as soluble silicates ; by P. B. Wilson, 373 XLVIIL— The Conglomerate Series of West Virginia; by William M. Fontaine, 374 XLIX.— On new twins of Staurolite and Pyrrhotite ; by Ed- L. — Researches on the Solid Carbon Compounds in Meteor- ites ; by J. Lawrence Smith, LI.— On the Oxidation product of Glycogen with Bromine Silver Oxide and Water ; by R. H. Chittenden, . , . . Lll.— On the existence or not of Horns in the Dinocerata by Richard Owen, Appendix.— LIII. — On some Characters of the genus Co ryphodon ; by O. C. Marsh,.. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and P%sws.— Biplometer, LANnOLF: Specific Heat of Gases, Wiede- mann. 403. — Crooke's Radiometer, S . ~ . _, ^ - , - . -The Gram Magneto-electric Mineralogy.— Doen the actual vegetation of the Globe furnish any Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio, by J. S. Newberry, 409.— Survey of Alabama, by EuG. A. Smith, 410.— The Geological Record y Wm. Whitaker, 411.— Report on the Geology of a portion of Colo- ined in 1873, by .1. J. Stevenson: Das Gebirge urn Hallstatt, von berg; Handbuch der Mmeral-Chemie: Einleitimg in CAEi Klein, 413. Zoology.— Phsenoiogical observations in Giessen, Hoffman : Bulletin of 414.— Nymphaea flava: Note on <:oast, by A. B. Vekrtll, 416.— IS meory- ^^AlJLeogeneBis; oi uie genenc connection between the Geryon- l jEginidtE, by A. Agassiz, 420.— Animal Parasites and Messmates, Van oj-.nkukn: The Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, conducted by G. M. Hum- phrey. 421.— Bulletin No, 2, U. S.^Geological Survey of the Territories, 422. ^.s^rp?MWiy.— Observations of the planet Jupiter: Repertory of works in Pure and Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. — ^The American Cyclopaedia, 422. Annual Report of the Light-House Board to the Secretary of the Treasury for the year 187.5: Meter-Diagram, 4:23.~-Obituary.—A. R. Marvine. 424. NUMBER LXVI. Liy.— Note on the Duplicity of t.hp " Solar Spectrum ; by C. A. Youn ^ iLithia-t • - LY.— On a Lithia-bearing Biotite; by G. W. Hawks, 8 on the Solid Carbc Lawrence Smith,. )f Experiments on C „__ , ^, Norton, 442 LVI— Researches on the Solid Carbon Compounds i'n Mete- orites; by J. Lawrence Smith, L^V^IL— Results of Experiments on Contact Resistance ; J'^^^V^^^^^'^^^ Observations on'SaturnVby L^ "Trouvelot, 447 •^T^'^^^^ ^^ Eccentricity of the Earth's orbit ; by R. W. McFarland, •' 45g LX.— On a Bolide of January 31st, that passed over Ken- tucky ; by J. Lawrence Smith, 458 LXI.— Notes on the Sensitiveness of Silver Bromide Vo'the Green Rays as modified by the Presence of other Sub- stances; by M. Carey Lea, ^ 459 J^™--~^rSu'^l?'^^*^''^P''^'^''''' of Durangite; by G^. J. Brush, 464 t5SJ-~S''' Geological Survey of Brazil; by C. F. Hartt,, 466 T 5Jr "T?^,^*''''''''' ^^-^"^ ^^ Waconda ; by C. U. Shepard, Sr., 473 ^-^^— Paleozoic Subdivisions on the 40th Parallel; by Clarence King, 475 J^fJJ-—^ Nebula-photometer ; by E."c^ Picke'ring," '/.'.'. '. . 482 T ^^V""^."? ^ ""^^ Sub-order of Pterosauria ; by O. C. Marsh, 507 LX VIIL^Notice of new Odontornithes ; by O. C. Marsh, .... 509 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Ch^istry andFhysic^.-HydrocelMose, Gieard, 483.-Decomposition of Stearic Acid by distillation under Pressure, Johnston: Liquid Carbon Dioxide in min- eral cavities, Hartley: Decomposition of Alcohol by Aluminum Gladstone and Tribe, 484.— New Method for produi " - ^ bons Watson Smith: Manganese Boride and on the J^'unction of Manganese in Iron MetaUurgy, Troost and HAUTEPEtnLLE, 485.— Occurrence of Platinum, Pal- ladium, and Selenium m SUver coins, Rossleb: Conversion of Oleflnes into the corresponding Alcohols, Boutlebow, 486.— Trimethylbenzols of Coal tar Oil cing Condensed Hydrc Ritthausen: Acoustic Attractions, DvoBAK;488._Correlation of Forces, Grove; StorrSEcTm 490 *"'' Conductors, Exnbb : Proper Motion of the Geology and Mineralogy.— Paleozoic fossUs from the Serpentine formation of Chaberton 491.-Eozoon Canadense: Exploration of Lake Titicaca, A. Agassiz *^2~^'^'"*""^° ^°"*^ °* ^^^^ Superior, Roland Ibving: fossil bird from the bocene of New Mexico, Cope: Richmond Infusorial Stratum 493 —Car- boniferous Articulates : Note on the Uinta and Wahsatch Ranges, C. King: Ceraurus pleurexanthemus, of Trenton FaUs. C. D. Walcott 494 —Glacial phenomena in Jefferson Co., Xew York: Origin of the Porphyry of Marble- neaa Mass., 495.— Hayden's Report for 1874, 496.— Age of Angiospermous plants referred to the Cretaceous, 497.-Swi8s Paleontological S^iety: Geo- logical Survey of New Jersey, CooK: Eocene Corals of ItSy, 498.— Crvstallo- graphy, of P. Groth, 499. ^ ^ " ' ' a TUibiche, Peru. A. Agassiz, 499.— Caspian Sea, 500. Astronomy.— Tranait of Venus observed in Bengal: new Planets, 501 Miscellaneoy^ ScienU/k InteUigence.—Atti deUa Reale Accademia dei Lincei Statistics of Mines and Mining R. W. Raymond, 504.— National Acad'e^, .. Sciences: Memoir of Caroline Herschel, 505.— Depth of the Pacific, 506. A M E R I C A N JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. l.~Contrihutions io Meteorology, heing Results derived from an examination of the United /States Weather Maps and from other sources ; by Elias Loomis, Professor of Natural Philoso- phy in Yale College. Fourth paper. With Plate. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia, Nov. 2, 1875.] Movement of Areas of high barometer. Having determined the average direction and velocity of movement of areas of low barometer within the limits of the United States, I desired to make a similar determination re- specting areas of high barometer. As I have in my posvses- sion only one Weather Map for each day, I have frequently found it difficult to follow the course of areas of high barome- L month each, viz : Aug., 1873, Dec, 1874, aSd Jan., 1875. The following are the average courses and velocities of the areas of high barometer for these months : |Co "High mlnuB Low. MONTHS. .,„.,..,.., course. iVelocity. .-.;E. ris. 7°S.i -5-7 SeTi;;-:::: ..-'E.4 -.|E. 1 25S.i -0-8 Mean -JB. 1 2 S.j 24-8 1 n sJ -v2 . JouK. Sol— Thibd Sbbies, Vol. XI, ] 2 E. Loomis — Results from an examination of the The lower line shows the averages for the three months, regard being had to the number of cases in each month. Compar- ing these results with those given in my last article for areas of low barometer (this Jour., vol. x, p. 5), we find that for each month the course of high barometer is more southerly than low barometer. These dilferences are shown in column fourth. Column fifth shows the differences in velocity for each month. These observations indicate that while the average track of storms east of the Eocky Mountains, across the United States, is nine degrees to the north of east, areas of high barometer advance toward a point several degrees south of east, and with a velocity somewhat less than the former. Monthly mi?iima of temperature. In a former article (this Jour., vol. ix, p. 7) I gave a table showing the lowest temperature observed at New Haven for each month during a period of three years, together with the height of the barometer, direction of the wind, and degree of cloudiness for the corresponding dates, and I expressed the opinion that these low temperatures are due in part to the descent of cold air within an area of high barometer. Inas- much as some persons ascribe these low temperatures to a flow of air from a higher latitude, it has appeared to me that it would be instructive to study the same phenomenon at a locality where a current of air from a colder latitude is impos- sible ; and such a locality must be found at the point of mini- mum temperature for the northern hemisphere. Now accord- ing to Dove's charts ; during the winter months Jakutsk, in Siberia, lat. 62° 2' N., is situated very near the center of great- est cold for the northern hemisphere. I have, therefore, sought for a complete meteorological journal at this station, and have found it in Middendorff 's Sibirische Reise, Band I, pp. 28-49, extending from Sept., 1844, to June, 1846. The following table shows the results obtained for each month of this period. Column first shows the date of the lowest temperature for each month ; column second shows the lowest temperature for each month in degrees of Eeaumur ; column third shows the direction of the wind, and column fourth shows the force of the wind ; column fifth shows whether the sky was clear or over- cast ; column sixth shows the height of the barometer expressed in Russian half lines ; column seventh shows the mean height of the barometer for each month ; column eighth shows how much the observed height of the barometer differed from the mean height expressed in English inches (one-half line-O'OS inch English). From this table it will be seen that the monthly minima of temperature are almost entirely independent of the direction of United States Weather Maps and other sources. 3 the wind. A northerly direction occurs 10 times ; southerly, 6 times ; easterly 7 times ; and westerly, 5 times. In every instance (except one) these winds were faint, and generally very faint. In two-thirds of the cases the sky was entirely clear, and in only two cases was the sky entirely overcast. In three-fourths of the cases the barometer stood above its mean height. Lowest temperature for each month at JaMtsk, Siberia, f or the years 18U, 5 and Q. in.n4u°m. | temp-r direction. force. Face of sky. bar.'^m'nbar Inches. 1844, Sept. 30 -3°1 ~N~W~~ very faint overcast. i^'i^ + 019 Oct. 31 Calm. clear. + 0-29 Nov. 29 N.N.W very faint + 0-25 Dec. 18 Calm. partly clear. S. S. W. . -0-06 ''^'' ^.^^l I40-; Calm. clear. 601-21 594-9 +0-31 April 5 -20-£ very faint 601-9 592-4 +0-48 - 7-8! W. strong. JUM 9 - 1-3! E. 584-4 587-3 -0-14 July 30 N.E. very faint clear very faint 589-6 588-7 1 0-05 Sept 26 Calm. partly clear. 596-2 594-2+0-10 Oct. 31 faint. pa«;.*„. Nov. 23 -39-8 V' Dec. 25 N.E. very faint. clear. 604-6 601-2' +0-17 1846, Jan. 10 141-9 N. N. E. faint. partly clear. 595-9 597-9| -0-10 Feb. 2 -43-6 N. N. E. faint. partly clear. Mar. 14 599-5 594-9: +0-23 April 10 veryflint clear! May 3 -17-41 N. June 9 + 2-4iW.S.W. faint mostly overcast. 582-4 587-31 -0-24 In all these particulars, except the direction of the wind, the phenomena at Jakutsk are quite similar to those observed at New Haven. So far as I have yet learned it is true universally that periods of unusual cold are generally accompanied by a barometer above the mean. Now it has been shown (this Jour., vol. ix,p. 2) that within areas of high barometer the motion of the air is outward from the center of this area, and therefore there must be a downward motion to supply the air flowing outward. In other words, it must be regarded as an observed fact that periods of unusual cold are generally accompanied by a descent of air from the upper regions of the atmosphere. Influence of Winds on the temperature, moisture and 2yresmre of the atmosphere. In order to determine the influence of winds upon the tem- perature, etc., of the atmosphere, I selected the Meteorological observations made at Girard College, Philadelphia, from 1840 E. Lot -Results from c I of the to 1845. A large sheet of paper was ruled with 16 vertical columns, and at the head of these columns were placed the letters K ; N. N.E. ; N.E., etc., for the directions of the wind. I first took the observations for the three winter months, and be- ginning with Dec. 1, 1840, found that at the first observation the wind was N.W. The temperature at this observation was compared with the mean temperature of that month for the same hour, and the difference (with its algebraic sign) was placed in the column headed N.W. I proceeded in like man- ner with each succeeding observation during the winter months for the whole period of five years. The average of all the num- bers in each column was taken and the results are shown in column second of the following table. These numbers clearly indicate that the coldest winds are from the neighborhood of the N.W., and the warmest winds from the neighborhood of the S.E. As, however, the progress of the numbers is somewhat irregular, I have taken the average of each successive three numbers in this column and placed the results in column third. These numbers show a remarkable regularity, indicating a mini- mum with a N.W. wind, and increasing thence uninterruptedly to a maximum with a S.E. wind, and thence decreasing unin- terruptedly to the minimum. The entire range of the numbers in column third is 8-°46 Fahr., while the extreme range in column second is 10-°18. Influence of winds on the temperature, moisture and pressure Of the atmosphere. Force of vapor at Philadelphia. Barometer at Philadelphia. Direction 29 inches plus. ^.. ^^\^^}^}^t S"i Z'»^l\ S7 iTr'"! ^^r;^,l5S:^:^ N. :i^fi-53|:3^s:3.3 1"^ -005. --096! --085 r039' r005^ •9^0^ -933 N.N. E. _0-45l-0-25!-?-78 + •003 --0721 --072 •986 1-0131 -9371 "956 + l-28:+O-40j~2-07 + •012 + ■005! -047—055 r038 -980 -S'' E. N. E. + 0-36! + 1-00 -2-68 + •011—046—040 1-033 1-008 1-001 E. + l-37i+2-66-l-87 -1-82 + •025—026—029 1-018 roi4 1-018 + 6-26 +4-25 -0-90 + •043—016—004 •953 r033 1-OU -h5-ll|+5-94;-0-66 -0-24 + •060 + -031 +023 ■913 ^994 -918 as.K + 059 + -054 + -046 •8 8^ -9061 -93^ s. + •052 •920 •8891 -901 -91 s. s. w. + 3-05' ^:'.-8s't 2-72 T 2-48 + ■036 + 029 + •029;+ -066 +^056 •890 W.S.W. •874 s q 3 w. w^ -3-72-2-O3^4-0-8O,+0-lO|il039r-032:— 034 --034 •9 l! •846 -m -l-26-2-52:-2-94:-l-79— 025--025:-081 -u67 -968 -887! -88J N.N.W. -2-57-1-80I-3-22I-3-28— 012— 0151-086 --088 •989 1-006 -912 -Sl^ United States Weather Maps and other sources, 5 fourth. The average of each successive three numbers in this column was taken and the results are shown in column fifth. In order to determine the influence of the winds on the moist- ure of the air I took the observations of the force of vapor (ex- pressed in inches of mercury) and compared each observation with the mean force for that month, and the given hour. The results for the three winter months are shown in column sixth of the preceding table, and the averaged numbers are shown in column seventh. The results for the three summer months, obtained in like manner, are shown in columns eighth and ninth. In order to determine the influence of the wind on the pres- sure of the air, I placed each observation of the barometer in the column having the observed wind at the top, and took the averages of the numbers in each column. The result for the three winter months (subtracting 29 inches) are shown in column tenth and the averaged numbers in column eleventh. Similar results for the three summer months are shown in columns twelve and thirteen. On comparing the numbers in this table we see that in win- ter at Philadelphia the lowest temperature occurs with a wind from the KW., and in summer with a wind from a point about 15° west of north. Now if we suppose a mass of air to be transferred from a higher latitude to a lower, we should expect that its relative temperature would be the lowest when it moved in a direction perpendicular to the isothermal lines. Observing this rule we should conclude that m winter the coldest wind at Philadelphia must come from a quarter about 15° west of north, provided it commenced its motion from anv place within 600 miles from Philadelphia. But if it came from a distance of over 1000 miles from Philadelphia then the coldest wind would come fi-ora a point 80° west of north. But the coldest wind actually comes from a point 45° west of north ; that is, at Philadelphia in winter the coldest wind blows from a point 15° more west- erly than the coldest region about Philadelphia. In summer, if we extend the comparison to a distance of 1000 miles from Philadelphia, we shall find the coldest region to lie in a N.E. direction ; but if we confine ourselves to a ra- dius not exceeding 600 miles, we shall find nearly the same temperature prevailing in all directions between the limits of N.E. and N. 25° W. But the coldest wind is observed to blow from a point N. 15° W., which lies within the limits above determined. On the whole, we conclude that at Phila- delphia the coldest wind comes very nearly from the coldest region within a distance of from 500 to 1000 miles from Phil- adelphia, with a suspicion, however, that the former is a tew de- grees more westerly than the latter. 6 E. Loomis— Results from an examination of the In winter the warmest wind at Philadelphia is found to blow from a direction S. 40° E., while in summer it blows from the S.W. The former direction takes us to the Gulf Stream at about its nearest point, and at a distance of 250 miles. In summer the warmest region within 400 or 500 miles of Phila- delphia lies in a direction S. 30° W., while the warmest wind blows from a point 15° more westerly. On the whole, the ob- servations indicate that both the warmest and coldest winds at Philadelphia blow pretty nearly from the regions of greatest heat and cold, but there is reason to suspect that these direc- tions are not quite coincident. From the table of monthly minima of temperature at New Haven given in my former article, (this Jour., vol. ix, p. 7) it will be seen that the average monthly minimum is 25° below the mean temperature of the corresponding month. The table last given shows that a small portion of this effect (viz. 5°) ma}^ be ascribed to the influence of the direction of the wind, but there remains unexplained four-fifths of the whole efi'ect which is to be ascribed to the influence of other causes. The preceding table shows that both in summer and winter the force of vapor at Philadelphia is greatest with the same wind which brings the highest temperature ; and it is lowest with the wind which brings the lowest temperature. The de- viations from this rule are so small as to render it probable that the discrepancies would entirely disappear in the means of a long series of observations. Since cold air has a greater density than warm air, and dry air has a greater density than vapor of water, it might be ex- pected that the wind which brings the lowest temperature and the least vapor, would bring the highest pressure. We see. however, from the preceding table that such is not the case. In winter the highest pressure comes with a wind from the N.E., or perhaps N. 55° E. ; while in summer the highest pressure comes with an east wind, which directions are distant more than 90° from the coldest quarter of the horizon. So, also, in winter, the lowest pressure comes with a S.W. wind, and in summer with a west wind, both of which directions are quite distant from the warmest quarter of the horizon. It seems probable that the excess of uressure which accompanies an east- erly or N.E, wind is but the result of the high barometer which usually precedes a N.E. storm. Diurnal inequality in the rain-fall. In my former article (this Jour., vol. x, p. 3) I noticed a di- urnal inequality in the progress of storms and was hence led to infer that there must be a diurnal inequality in the fall of United States Weather Maps and other sources. 7 rain. In searching for observations to test this conclusion, I found a decided diurnal inequality in the rain-fall at Philadel- phia showing a maximum about 6 P. M. and a minimum at 3 A. M. The observations made by the United States Signal Sei'- vice did not show any decided 'diurnal inequality, owing, per- haps, to their including only three daily observations. In a series of hourly observations made at seven stations in Great Britain I found evidence of two daily maxima and two daily Since the publication of my former article I have found in Kreil's Klimatologie von Bohmen the results of ten years' obser- vations at Prag, lat 50° 6', which show a decided diurnal in- equality, having a maximum about 4 P. M. and a minimum about 7 A. M., with a second maximum which is less distinctly marked. The following table shows the average annual rain-fall at Prag as deduced from observations from 1850 to 1859 expressed in Paris lines : Balnfall at Prag, Aiistria. Hour. Kain-fall. Hour. Eain-fall. Midnight. 6-864 Noon. 7-063 8-901 5-986 10-207 tin 10-845 5-049 8-211 6-949 i? 6-798 6-072 10 till These numbers follow a law bearing a close resemblance to that of the Philadelphia observations, and lead us to presume that a similar law must prevail in the fall of rain over a con- siderable portion of the United States. I have received the hourly observations of rain-fall at seven stations of Great Britain complete for the year 1874. At most of the stations there are evidently two periods of maximum rain-fall, but the time of maximum appears to depend very much upon local circumstances. Comparison of storm paths in America and Europe. In compari :urope I hav \ the tracks followed bv i ) daily United States Signal Service maps from 1871 ^ 1875, and especially the monthly maps showing the tracks E. Loomis — Results from an examination of the 2. Atlas des mouvements generaux de I'atmosphere, redige par I'observatoire Imperial de Paris, embracing 18 months, from June, 1864, to Dec. 1865. 3. Cartes synoptiques journalieres construites par N. Hoff- meyer, Copenhagen, embracing 9 months, from Dec. 1873 to Aug. 1874. In order to determine what may be called the average track of storm centers in the United States, I ruled a large sheet of paper with several vertical columns headed 122°, 117°, 107°, etc., these numbers denoting degrees of longitude from Green- wich. I then took one of the monthly maps showing the tracks of storm centers, and following each of the tracks in succession determined in what latitude it crossed the meridians indicated at the top of the table, and the results were set down in the ap- propriate column. I proceeded in the same manner with each of the monthly maps and then took the average of all the numbers in each column. The results are shown in the first two columns of the following table ; where column first shows the meridians of longitude from Greenwich, and column sec- ond shows the average latitude in which each of these meridians is intersected by the storm paths. The curve thus determined is traced on the accompanying chart and passes over the center of Lake Erie. It will be seen that the average direction of storm paths is not the same on all meridians. The directions given in my former article (see this Jour., vol. x, p. 1) must he understood to be the average direction of storm paths for the region covered by the United States observations ; and this represents pretty nearly the mean direction for a place whose lat- itude is 42-|° and longitude 83^° W., which is nearly the posi- tion of Detroit, Michigan. Average direction of storm-paths. U.S.Weat erMaps. Parte M« B. Danish Ma P8. Mean of Par and Dan. h^Wn^K. Latttnde f^o°^«f. t^u^dt rhXX full: ^«^1 122° W. 45-8" 46-9 60°-45°W. 462° 6J°-50"W. tix 55° W. ll'X 40 -30 15- 30-20 62-6 54-9 87 -15 E. 20-10 10-0 30-45 -10 E. 5 E. 62 10-20 20-30 30-40 ii:i 25 66-8 150 -60 E. 65-3 55 E. 53-3 I proceeded in a somewhat similar manner with the Paris maps, but since these maps do not generally exhibit lines United States Weather ^faps and other sources. 9 drawn so as to show the tracks of storms from day to day, I placed in one column the latitudes of all the storm centers between the meridians of 60° and 45° W. from Paris ; in a sec- olumnl 30° W., and s average of all the latitudes in each of the columns. The result is shown in columns third and fourth of the preceding table, and the path thus determined is traced on the accompanying chart This path passes over Dublin, and will be seen to form a natural continuation of the track deduced from the Ameri- can observations. This result is doubtless accidental and is due to the fact that near the American coast the observations from which the Paris maps were constructed were derived from a re- gion extending but little north of the stations of the United States Signal Service, If the Paris maps had included obser- vations from Labrador and Greenland the average track of the storms represented would have been more northerly than it I proceeded in a similar manner with Hoffmeyer's charts ex- cept that the meridians were selected at intervals of 10°, and the results are shown in columns fifth and sixth. The path thus determined lies several degrees north of that previously determiued, and this arises from the fact that the maps exhibit the results of observations made in Greenland and Iceland as well as from more southern latitudes. In order to deduce an average result from the French and Danish maps I have com- bined them in a single series, and the result is' shown in col- umns seventh and eighth of the preceding table. The path thus determined is traced on the accompanying chart and passes through the northern extremity of Scotland. In order to show the connection between storm paths and the mean height of the barometer, I have drawn upon the same chart two other barometric lines. The mean height of the ba- rometer at the level of the sea varies with the latitude of the place. On the Atlantic ocean at the equator the mean height of the barometer is about thirty inches. If from this point we travel northward the pressure increases, and in latitude 30° be- comes about 80*2 inches. Thence the pressure diminishes to 29-6 inches near latitude 70°, from which point the pressure slightly increases as we advance northward. A somewhat sim- ilar result takes place in going from the equator to the North Pole upon any meridian, but the maximum pressure is not the same under all meridians, and the same is true of the minimum pressure. The undulating line near the bottom of the accom- panying chart shows the line of the greatest mean pressure varying on different meridians from^ about 30 ihches to 30-2 inches. The undulating line near the top of the chart 10 E. Loomis— Results from an examination of the shows the line of the least mean pressure, being about 29-6 inches on the meridian of Greenwich and increasing somewhat as we proceed either east or west from that meridian. These lines are drawn chieflv from data collected by Alexander Bu- chan. (See Edinburgh Phil. Trans , vol. xxv.) We perceive then that at all places near the southern margin of the chart the mean pressure of the atmosphere is greater than it is further northward, and this is generally suf- ficient to cause an average surface wind from south to north although the wind advances from a warmer to a colder region. On the other hand, at places near the northern margin of the chart the mean pressure of the atmosphere is somewhat greater than it is further south, and this force combined with a lower mean temperature causes a surface wind from north to south. Here then are permanent causes producing winds from opposite directions near the upper and lower portions of the chart, and these must be a permanent source of storms independent of those inequalities of pressure which arise from causes of a more local nature. The average path of storms in their progress from America to Europe is apparently modified by the line of greatest mean pressure. This line has a more northerly position in Europe than it has in America, and this may be the reason why storm tracks generally bend northward in advancing from America to Europe. There are some minor particulars in which storm paths are apparently modified by the line of greatest mean pressure ; but instead of attaching importance to coincidences which may prove to be accidental, it is more prudent to wait and see if these peculiarities are confirmed by further obser- Oscillations of the barometer in different latitudes. For the purpose of determining in what region of the globe the oscillations of the barometer are the greatest, I have pre- pared a table showing the mean monthly oscillation of the barometer at as many stations as possible in high northern lati- tudes. A few of the numbers in the following table are de- rived from Kaemtz Meteorology, edited by C. V. Walker, p. 297. The other numbers have been collected by myself from various sources which are indicated in the last column, and some of the results have required a careful discussion of many years' obser- vations. Column fourth shows the average monthly range of the barometer for the three winter months, and column fifth shows the same for the three summer months expressed in English inches As some of these numbers depend upon observations of only one 3^ear, and therefore do not represent mean values very ac- United A her Maps and c curately, I have endeavored to combine them so as to obtain a few normal values. I combined all the observations north of latitude 70° in one general average, and all the observations between latitudes 60'' and 70° in a second average. I then di- vided the observations of Kaemtz (Met, p. 298) into similar groups, each embracing ten degrees of latitude, viz., 60°— 50° ; 50°— 40°, etc., and thus obtained the normal values shown in tbe table at the bottom of this page. Mean monthly oscillation of the barometer for winter and summer. m. Confidence, Br. N. Torneo, Finland, Haparanda, Sweden, .. Godthaab, Greenland, . Umea, Sweden, Christiansund, Norwaj Hernosand, Sweden, . Aalesund, Norway, . . 48 W. 1-220 0-693 3 0-921 Parry's first voyage. Collectanea Met., 5 years obs. Met. lag. i Norge, 2 years obs. Rosa 2d Arctic Expedition, 2^ y . E.jl-642,0-92Hj Jakoiitsk. Siberia, Fahlun, Sweden,.. Abo, Russia, Met. lakttagelser. 1 859-69. Collectanea Met., 3 years obs. 0-97 1 jObservationes Met, 15 years obi aemtz Met., p. 298. et. lagttagelser i ^Torge, 9 yes et. lakttagelser, 1859-69. [et. lag. i Norge, 9 years obs. [et. lag. i Norge, 5 years obs. Monthly oscillation of the barometer {normal values). Latitude. ^?r 1 x-cr- IS 1^^%1 ^l "mT ,.„„„ 6 l'2 0-110 1 0-106 0-125 115 - -005 0-404 255 0-362 0-690 568 0-744 694 + -032 74 9 1-344 1 0-7 5.-5 1-757 - -4!3 1 933 '. Loomis — Results fror pretty well repre- and the summer oscillations by the formula : S= l-000sin2Z + 0.104 cos^Z. The differences between the observed and computed values a ! Atlantic Ocean by Maury's Charts. _ ! I j 601103 lit Tj11S?1|S'^ 16371.™ "s''i1" Vi sj 11 10 10 1= 15} 1, rs*^ 111 243 419312974 1797 1393 1100 773 48oi 349 % 111 ^ 34^ 334 2 1534 2265 1645 766 723 860 986 8931 747 3 g "t '1 1 ^ ' lOJJl^US. »g .05 3.15. lr 6 S i IT ill ^ riTi|iTii1|t •ni i i iidrnl# *^i^- 1 i 11 rrrrr'T'rr ;i 1: 'ol United Slates Weather Maps and other sources. 13 other term of the formulas varies as the square of the sine of the latitude, and this law of increase holds pretty closely up to about latitude Qb''. That part of the barometric oscillation represented by the first term of the formula is the effect of storms, and the oscillation diminishes within the Arctic circle. These results seem to indicate that in the Northern Ilemis- phere, storms increase in frequency as we proceed northward as far as latitude 60° and perhaps somewhat farther. The same result is shown by Maury's storm chart of the North Atlantic. The preceding table presents a summary of the results of this chart. The ocean is divided into squares by parallels of lati- tude drawn at intervals of five degrees from eacb other, and meridians of longitude at intervals of five degrees Each square of the preceding table contains three numbers. The first shows the number of observations within the given square, each observation representing a period of eight hours. Tiie second shows the number of gales reported, and the third is the average number of gales occurring in'a hundred observa- tions. Thus in the square included between the parallels of 40° and 45° of north latitude, aiid between the meridians of 45° and 50° west longitude from Grreenwich, the first number is 1863, which shows the number of observations obtained in that square. The second number is 280, which denotes the number of gales reported; the third number is 15, which de- notes that the number of gales was 15 per cent of the whole number of observations. An inspection of this table will show that on each meridian the frequency of gales increases with the latitude up to the highest latitude from which obser- vations are reported. Storms traced across the Atlantic Ocean. When storms from the American continent enter upon the Atlantic Ocean they generally undergo important changes in a few days and are frequently merged in other storms wliich ap- pear to originate over the ocean, so that we can seldom identify a storm in its course entirely across the Atlantic. The follow- ing are the only cases I have found on the French and Danish charts (embracing a period of 27 months) in which storms can be pretty distinctlv traced across the Atlantic. 1. Nov. 30— Dec. 11, 1864. A storm traced from New- foundland to Ireland. 2. April 20 — May 3, 1865, traced from Labrador to Ireland. 3. May 26—29, 1865, from Gulf St. Lawrence to Ireland. 4. Oct. 2—10, 1865, from Cape Cod to Ireland. 5. Oct. 11-17, 1865, from Newfoundland to Ireland. 6. March 1—5, 1874, from Hudson Bav to North Cape. 7. April 14—17, 1874, from Hudson Bay to Norway. 8. April 16—23, 1874, from Gulf St. Lawrence to Nor\vay. 9. May 23—30, 1874, from Gulf St. Lawrence to Norway. 10. Aug. 1—4, 1874, from Gulf of St. Lawrence to North Cape. 11 Aug. 12—17, 1874, from Hudson Bay to Norway. If the observations each day were sufficiently numerous to show the isobaric curves for every part of the Atlantic Ocean, doubtless many more storms might be traced from America to Europe, but it is presumed that such cases do not occur on an average more than once or twice a month. The storms of Eu- rope generally have their origin considerably east of the Amer- ican Continent and soon become so violent as to draw within their influence any small barometric depression which started from America. Velociti/ of Ocean Storms. The average velocity of storms upon the Atlantic Ocean as deduced from 134 cases on the French maps is 19*3 miles per hour; the velocity deduced from 49 cases on the Danish maps is 20-3 miles per hour ; giving an average of 19-6 miles per hour from both series of maps. The average velocity for the storms of the United States as deduced from 485 cases is 26 miles per hour. From a considerable number of cases in Eu- rope, Prof. Mohn has deduced an average velocity of 26 7 miles per hour. These numbers indicate that storms travel with less velocity over the Atlantic Ocean than they do over the Conti- nents of America and Europe ; and it seems to follow that the progressive movement of a storm is not the result of a simple drifting of the atmosphere ; for it seems probable that the aver- age progress of the atmosphere in an easterly direction is as rapid over the Atlantic Ocean as it is over North America. Storms of Jan. 29— Feb. 8, 1870, on the Atlantic Ocean. A succession of storms of unusual severity passed over the Atlantic, between Jan. 29 and Feb. 8, 1870, an account of which has been published by Capt. Henry Toynbee, of the London Meteorological office. On the 30th of January an area of low barometer prevailed near Nova Scotia ; on the 31st it was east of Newfoundland ; and on the 1st of February it was merged in another storm which had prevailed for several days on its eastern side. On the 2d of February a second storm cen- ter appeared near Newfoundland ; on the 3rd it had advanced east about 700 miles ; and on the 4th it became merged in another storm off the Irish coast. On the morning of the 5th a third storm appeared near the center of the Atlantic, which must have developed with unu- sual rapidity, since on the preceding day, observations had in- dicated no great atmospheric disturbance in that neighborhood. United States Weather Maps and other sources. 15 The isobar of 29 inohes is shown on the accompanying chart. On the afternoon of the same day, this storm blended -with another storm on its eastern 'side, and there resulted one of the most violent hurricanes ever experienced on the Atlantic Ocean. At 6 p. m. the barometer fell to 27-33 inches, which Capt. Toynbee pronounces the lowest ever observed on this part of the Atlantic. The accompanying chart represents the isobar of 29 inches on the morning of the 6tli, when the diam- eter of this curve was over 1000 miles, and the diameter of the isobar of 30 inches was over 2000 miles. During the next two days the storm advanced slowly towards the southeast, and its severity was much diminished. The accompanying chart shows the isobar 29"5 inches on the morning of Feb. 8th. During this interval of three days the center of the storm had moved only about 900 miles, "showing an average velocity of about 12 miles per hour. Application of FerreV s formula. In vol. viii of this Journal, p. 343, Prof. Ferrel has given a formula which enables us to compute the depression of the barometer resulting from a violent storm. If we divide the denominator of this formula by the number of inches in a mile, and suppose the wind to move in a circle, the formula becomes G = JL^^ + ^^, 250 131r' where G is expressed in inches, but v and r are expressed in miles. I have applied this formula to the storm of Feb. 5th, 1870, and the results are shown in the following table. Col- umn first shows the isobars which have been selected as the basis of comparison ; column second shows the radius of each isobar as nearly as can be determined from the observations of Capt. Toynbee's memoir ; and column third shows the velocity of the wind in miles on each of these isobars. These velocities were obtained by taking the mean of the various observations corresponding to the barometric heights given in column first. These velocities were recorded in the numbers of Beaufort's scale (0-12) and were reduced to miles by the table in Scott's Met Instruments, p. 68. Column fourth shows the gradient to 100 miles computed by the above formula, for points midway between the several isobars selected. If this gradient be sup- posed to be maintained for a distance equal to the distance be- tween the isobars, it will show a change of barometric pressure about the same as that actually observed. For the inner circle, the computed gradient will represent the observed depression of the barometer if we suppose that near the center of the storm there was a considerable mass of air revolving with a diminished velocity. ) E. Loom is — Results fror, Ex. \.~Storm ofFeh.5, ISVO, Atlantic Oeean, XXI"- "S" -" ^^'^sit 2800 29-00 1020 ^•42 I have made a similar application of the formula to two vio- lent cyclones of recent occurrence on the coast of the United States, and the results are shown below. In the Punta Rassa cyclone the assumed velocities 90 and 70 miles agree pretty well with the velocities actually observed; the velocities 50 and 35 miles are somewhat greater than the observations at the surface of the earth, but may be presumed to have been the velocities at a little elevation above the earth's surface. The velocities assumed for the Indianola cyclone are the velocities actuallv observed or estimated at Indianola. Ex.S .—Storm of Oct. 6, 1873, I>unta Bassa, lat Baron^eter. | ^'^^-^ | Velocity. ^l^^J? 2900 29-50 3000 i \ •'i? Ex. i.— Storm of Sept. 16, 1875, Ind ianola, lat. «!st- velocity. ^l«?eV'' 30.00 i. I 'Z The following is an example of a great i sual severity. Column third s' wind observed at any station near the corresponding isobars i column first, and column fourth shows the velocity assumed i computing the gradients in column fifth. Ex. i.—Storm of Nov. 18, 1873, New England, lat. 41° ^t\rsz!- Velocity of wind. Gnaientu, inches. Observed, j Assumed. '">-'■"■ 28-60 29-00 3?-S2 100 1200 i I .■?5 H. A. Rowland — Studies on Magnetic Distribution. 17 Stationary Storms. When a storm center has crossed the United States and passed to Nova Scotia or Newfoundland, we often find on the United States Weather Maps for two or three subsequent days the word low on the northeast corner of the maps, seeming to indicate that the center of the storm remained during that pe- riod nearly stationary. The Danish maps (from Dec, 1873, to Aug., 1874,) show us that storms do sometimes remain nearly stationary for several days. Case I From the 5th to the 8th of March, 1874, a violent storm moved from New Mexico to the St, Lawrence valley. On the 9tli the center of this storm was a little north of Hali- fax ; on the 10th it was still near the same place ; on the 11th it had moved northeast nearly 400 miles ; on the 12th it had moved south about 200 miles ; on the 13th it had moved north about 200 miles ; on the 14th it had moved south about 200 miles ; and on the 15th it moved northeast about 700 miles. Thus during five days (March 9-14) the center of the storm had advanced less than 350 miles, being an average motion of less than three miles an hour, and during the first four days the barometric depression was greater than it was on the 8th. Case II. From April 26th to 30th, 1874, a storm moved across the United States from Colorado to the St. Lawrence valley. During the next day (May 1st) the storm was station- ary ; on the 2d it moved a little to the southeast ; on the 3d it moved a little to the east ; and on the 4th it reached St. Johns, Newfoundland. Thus in four days the center moved 775 miles, being an average rate of about eight miles an hour ; and during the first half of this time the average movement scai'cely exceeded four miles an hour. In preparing the materials for this article, I have been as- sisted by Mr. Edward S. Cowles, a graduate of Yale College of the class of 1873. -Studies on Magnetic Diatribution ; by ~ ■ " lity, Ba KowLAND, of the Johns Hopkir Let us now consider the case of that portion of the bar which is covered by the helix. First of all, when the helix is symmet- rically placed on the rod, equations (5) and (6) will apply. As Q'^e is the quantity which is usually taken to represent AM. .JouH. Scl-Third Sbries, Vol. XI, No. 61.- Jan., 1876. H. A. Rowland — Studies on Magnetic Distribution. eing nearly proportional 1 I shall prit In the fii-st place, then, this equation shows that the distribu- tion of magnetism in a very elongated electro-magnet, and indeed of a steel magnet, does not change when pieces of soft iron bars of the same diameter as the magnet are placed against the poles, provided that equal pieces are applied to both ends ; otherwise there is a change. This result would be modified by taking into account the variation of the permeability, &c. Let us first consider the case where the rod projects out of the end of the helix, as in Tables V, VI and YII. By giving proper values to the constants we obtain the results given in the last columns of the table. The agreement with observa- tion is in most cases very perfect. We also see the same variation of r that we before noticed in the rest of the curves, and we see that it is in just the direction theory would indicate from the change of //. In these tables we come to a very important subject, and one to which I called attention some years back, namely, the change in the distribution when the magnetizing -force varies, and which is due to change of permeability. The following tables and figures show this extremely well, and are from very long rods with a helix a foot long at their center, as in the last three tables. The bar in both these tables was 19 inch in diameter and 5 feet long. The zero-point was at the center of the bar and of the helix. The tables give values of Q'^ for the magnetizing-forces which appear at the head of each col- umn, and which are the tangents of the angles of deflection of the needles of a tangent-galvanometer. Table YIII. only gives the part covered by the helix. Both tables are from tlie mean of both ends of the bar. strength of magnrtmrigcm-ent. •194. •3t8. •600. L, K-I i 9-3 J These experiments show in the most positive manner the effect we are considering, and we are impressed by them with the great complication introduced into magnetic distribution by the variable character of magnetic permeability. A. Rowland — Studies on Magnetic Distribution. .. •257. B. A. 1-303. z !a 2-? 6-1 8-2 9-6 6 7-9 11-5 21-3 16-8 150 27-4 9-8 21-5 20 36 16 5 half the bar Table ^ Here the greatest change is observed in the part covered by the helix, though there is also a great change in the other part Plot of Table IX, showing surface-density magnetizing- These tables show that, as the magnetization of the bar in- creases, at least beyond a certain point, the curves on the part covered by the helix increase in steepness ; and the figure even shows that near the middle of the helix an increase of magnet- izing-force may cause the surface-density to decrease j and Table VIII. shows this even better. Should we calculate Q", how- ever, we should always find it to increase with the magnetizing- force in all cases. These effects can be shown also in the case where the bar does not extend beyond the helix, but not nearly so well as in this case, seeing that here Q'' can obtain a greater value. Assuming that p- is variable, the formula indicates the same change that we observe ; for as Q" increases from zero upward, l-i will first increase and then decrease ; so that as we increase the magnetizing-force from zero upward, the curve should first decrease in steepness and then increase indefinitely in steepness. 20 H. A. Rowland — Studies on Magnetic Distribution. In these tables the decrease of steepness is not very apparent, because the magnetization is always too great, and indeed on this account it is difficult to show it; but in Tables V, YI and VII. this action is shown to some extent by the values of r in the formulae. The change of distribution with the helix arranged in this way at the center of the bar is greater than in almost every other case, because the magnetism of the bar Q" can change greatly throughout the whole length of the helix, and thus the value of r be changed, and so the distribution become different The next case of distribution which I shall consider is that of a very long rod having a helix wound closely around it for some distance at one end. Table X. is from a bar 9 feet long with a helix wound for one foot along one end. The bar was '25 inch in diameter. All except the first column is the sum of two results with the cur- rent in opposite directions, and after letting the bar stand for some time, as indeed was done in nearly every case. The first column contains twice the quantities observed, so as to com- pare with the others. The zero-point was at the end of the bar covered by the helix. X and L. A. B. C. D. •360. 1-09. ? XV. :f6--^ X^l + 60-1 X 2-0 X 4-6 :i + 22-8 - 1-8 - 1-6 - 2-1 - -3 10 - ^."9 - 6-3 - 8-6 - 15-6 -16-4 - 27-1 -12-5 - 210 - 31-2 20 - 5-3 -15-2 48 "" ' - 12 The value of Q"e between and 1 includes the lines of force passing out at the end of the bar, and is therefore too large. H. A. Rowland — Studies on Magnetic Distribution. Plot of Table X. In fig, 4 we have a plot of the results found for this bar. The curves are such as we should expect from our theory except for the variations introduced by the causes which we have hitherto considered. Thus the sharp rise in the curve when near the ehd of the bar has already been explained in vith Table III. A small portion of it, however, is • those lines of induction which pass out through the end 1 of the bar, and in future experiments these should be [ and allowed for. When considering surface-density we should also allow for the direct action of the helix, though this is always found too small except in very accurate ex- To estimate the shape of the curve theoretically in this case, let us take equation (4) once more, and in it make s' = cd and s"=V'RR' which will make it apply to this. We shall then have A'=—l, and A'''=QO. Whence for the positive part of Q'% we have '2RV and for the negative part therefore the real value is And if X is reckoned from the end of the rod, we have ~2R'/ When x=0, this becomes . becomes and this is the ratio of the values of Q^'g at the ends of the helix. When b is 12 inches, as in this case, we get the follow ng values of tl ns rati. :>■•- r= •05. •1. •15. •20. j CO. 4-43 •3494 2-40 1 2-20 1 ■4863 •500 To compare this with our experiments, let us plot Table 1 once more, rejecting, however, the end observations and con pleiing the curve by the eye, thus getting rid of the error intr duced at this point We then find for this r%tio, according 1 the different curves, It is seen that these are all above the limit 2, as they should be, though it is possible that it may fall below in some cases owing to the variation of the permeability. As the magnetiza- tion increases, the values of the above ratio shovf that r de- creases, as we should expect it to do from the variation of ^. To find the neutral point in this case, we must have in for- mula (10) where x is the distance of the neutral point from the end. Making 6=12, we have from this By experiment we find that the neutral point is, in all the cases we have given in Table X, between 76 and SI inches, which are quite near the points indicated by theory for the proper values of r, though we might expect curve D to pass through the point x=9, except for the disturbing causes we have all along considered. Our formulae, then, express the general facts of the distri- bution in this case with considerable accuracy. These experiments and calculations show the change in dis- tribution in an electro-magnet when we place a piece of iron H, A, Rowland — Studies on Magnetic Distribution. 23 against one pole only. In an ordinary straight electro-magnet the neutral point is at the center. When a paramagnetic sub- stance is placed against or near one end, the neutral point moves toward it ; but if the substance is diamaguetic it moves The same thing will happen, though in a less degree, in the case of a steel magnet, so that its neutral point depends on external conditions as well as on internal. We now come to practically the most interesting case of dis- tribution, namely, that of a straight bar magnetized longitudi- nally either by a helix around it, or by placing it in a magnetic field parallel to the lines of force ; we shall also see that this is the case of a steel magnet magnetized permanently. This case is the one considered by Biot (Traite de Phys., tome iii, p. 77) and Green (Mathematical Papers of the late George Green, p. Ill, or Maxwell's "Treatise," art 439), though they apply their formulae more particularly to the case of steel magnets. Biot obtained his formula from the analogy of the magnet to a Zamboni pile or a tourmaline electrified by heat. Green obtained his for the case of a very long rod placed in a mag- netic field parallel to the lines of force, and, in obtaining it, used a series of mathematical approximations whose pbysical meaning it is almost impossible to follow. Prof. Maxwell has criticised his method in the following terms (" Treatise," art 439) :— " Though some of the steps of this investigation are not rigorous, it is probable that the result represents roughly the actual magnetization in this most important case." From the theory which I have given in the first part of this paper we can deduce the physical meaning of Green's approximation, and these are included in the hypotheses there given, seeing that when my formula is applied to the special case considered by Green, it agrees with it where the permeability of the mate- rial is great My formula is, however, far more general than Green's. It is to Green that we owe the important remark that the distribution in a steel magnet may be nearly represented by the same formula that applies to electro-magnets. As Green uses what is known as the surface-density of mag- netization, let us first see how this quantity compares with those I have used. Suppose that a long thin steel wire is so magnetized in the direction of its length that when broken up the pieces will have the same magnetic moment While the rod is together, if we calculate its efiect on exterior bodies, we shall see that the ends are the only portions which seem to act. Hence w e may math- ematically consider the whole action of the rod t the distribution of an imaginary magnetic fluid o^ obe^dueto ^er the ends 24 H. A. Rowland— Studies on Magyietic Distribution. of the rod. As any case of magnetism can be represented by a proper combination of these rods, we see that all cases of this sort can be calculated on the supposition of there being two magnetic fluids distributed over the surfaces of the bodies, a unit quantity of which will repel another unit of like nature at a unit's distance with a unit of force. The surface-density at any point will then be the quantity of this fluid on a unit- surface at the given point, and the linear density along a rod will be the quantity along a unit of length, supposing tbe density the same as at the given point Where we use induced currents to measure magnetism we measure the number of lines of force, or rather induction, cut by the wire, and the natural unit used is the number of lines of a unit-field which will pass through a unit-surface placed perpendicular to the lines of force. The unit-pole produces a unit-field at a unit's distance ; hence the number of lines of force coming from the unit-pole is 4;r, and the linear density is and the surface-density 4:7l^d^Jj These really apply only to steel magnets ; but as in the case ( electro- magnets the action of the helix is very small compare with that of the iron, especially when it is very long and tt iron soft,* we can apply these to the cases we consider. Transforming Green's into my notation, it gives ^)^''''^' ■ • ■ "^ in which n is Neumann's coefficient of magnetization by indui This equation then gives Q-. = .L(!f)^(.-l)'-:^'. . . (H) Equation (5) can be approximately adapted to this case by making s'=oo , which is equivalent to neglecting those lines of force which pass out of the end section of the bar. This gives A'= — 1, hence * I take this occasion to correct an error in Jenkin's " Textbook of Electricity." number of lines of force is increased 32 times. The number should have been from a quite small number for a short thick bar and hard iron to nearly 6000 for a long thin bar and softest iron. E. A. Rowland^ Studies on Magnetic Distribution. Now we have found (equa and this in Green's formula (equation 14) giv (16) I identical with my own when }a is large, as it always is ise of iron, nickel, or cobalt at ordinary temperatures. I X is measured from the center of the bar, my equation 2 + £-2 (IV) The constant part of Biot's formula is not the same as this ; but for any given case it will give the same distribution. Both Biot and Grreen have compared their formulae with Coulomb's experiments, and found them to represent the dis- tribution quite well. Hence it will not be necessary to consider the case of steel magnets very extensively, though I will give a few results for these farther on. At present let us take the case of electro-magnets. For observing the effect of the permeability, I took two wires 12-8 inches long and 19 inch in diameter, one being of ordi- nary iron and the other of Stub's steel of the same temper as when purchased. These were wound uniformly irora end to end with one layer of quite fine wire, making 600 turns in that distance. In finding A from Q''^, the latter was divided by 47rAL, ex- cept at the end, where the end section was included with aL in the proper manner, x was measured from the end of the bar in inches. xperime all valu 26 H. A. Rowland — Studies on Magnetic Distribution. The observations in Table XL are the mean of four observa- tions made on both ends of the bar and with the current in both directions. The agreement with the formula in this table is quite good ; but we still observe the excess of observation over the formula at the end, as we have done all along. Here, for the first time we see the error introduced by the method of exp I have before referred to in the apparently g ata:=-75. On trying the steel bar, I came across a curious fact which, however, I have since found has been noticed by others. It is that when an iron or steel bar has been magnetized for a long time in one direction and is then demagnetized, it is easier to magnetize it again in the same direction than in the opposite direction. The rod which I used in this experiment bad been used as a permanent magnet for about a month, but was demag- netized before use. From this rod five cases of distribution were observed : first, when the bar was used as an electro-mag- net with the magnetization in same direction as the original magnetism; second, ditto with magnetization contrary to orig- inal magnetism ; third, when used as a permanent magnet with magnetism the same as the original magnetism ; fourth, ditto with magnetism opposite; and fifth, same as third but curve taken after several days. The permanent magnetism was given bv the current. Tablk XII. Stub's Steel. Electro-magnet. Permanent magnet. Ir^nl SI-: Original. Ma^etism S- Ditto third After three or four days. Q^. 447r^. Q.. 47rA. Q.. nl. Qe. AnX. Q..].-. t '23-3 23-0 1 1 'i 5-3 ^•9 I 2-9 2-9 The observations in Tables XI and XII. can be compared together, the quantities being expressed in the same unknown arbitrary unit. It is to be noted that the bars in Tables XL and XII. were subjected to the same raagnetizing-force. H. A. Rowland — Studies on Magnetic Distrihuiic 27 curves for steel are much more ould thus give greater values to r in the formula, a result to be expected. We also observe in both figures the great change in distribution due to the direc- tion of magnetization. In the case of the electro-magnet this little than change in scale ; but in the per- manent magnet there is a real change of form in the curve. It seems probable that this change of form would be done away with bj using a suf3Scient mag- netizing-power or magnetizing Results fromjelectro-magnets:— -^^ apphcation of permanent magnets ; for it is probable that 3 as originaUj. ~ the fall in the curve E is due from Table XII magnetized to the magnctizing-force hav- )site to Its original magnetism. • ■, „„«;„;„^r ^„ „u , npletelj thee Dg been sufficient to change partially at the On comparing the distribution on electro-magnets with that n permanent magnets, we perceive that the curve is steeper g toward the end in electro-mag- nets than in permanent mag- nets. At first I thought it might be due to the direct ac- tion of the helix, but on trial found that the latter was almost inappreciable. I do not at present know the explanation ments on the distribution of ,%abfe''S\ *° ^^ original magnetism on permanent mag- Scaie four times that of fig. 5. ^^ts, and SO I shall only con- sider this subject briefly. I have already given one or two results in Table XII. The following tables were taken from two exactly similar Stub's steel rods not hardened, one of which was subsequently used in the experiments of Table XIL They were 12-8 inches long and -19 inch in diameter. The coincidence of these observations with the formula is very remarkable, but still we see a little tendency in the end observation to rise above the value given by the formula. H. A. Rowland — Studies on Magnetic Distribution. Table XIII. .. Observed. ObSrved. Oo-„. e™,. In f- '£1 34-26 18-60 V 3-84 ^?-2 4-?7 + •8 6-40 2-3 1-8 1-41 + -4 47r^=-117(10-^o-^(^-10-^'>n In equation (7), and also from Green's formula, we have seen that for a given quality and temper of steel -^ is a constant. From Coulomb's experiments on a steel bar -176 inch in diam- eter whose quality and temper is unknown, though it was Observed. Obse^rved. Computed. Error. 5-12 21-4 16-7 16-?2 ^% probably hardened, Green has calculated the value of this con- stant and obtained -05482, which was found from the French inch as the unit of length, but which is constant for all systems. From Tables XIII. and XIV. we find the value of r to be 4674, whence ^ = -04440 for steel not hardened. As the steel be- and can probably reach Soft steel, A. Hard steel B. X. Qe. 4.A. Qf. 1 47rA. 1-92 '9-8 1 2-6 ^2-0 •f hardening, I !r, thus producir Rowland — Studies on Magn : Distribution. long. One of tbese halves was hardened till it could scarcely be scratched by a file, but the other half was left unaltered. The following table gives the distribution, using the same unit as that of Tables XIII. and XIV. The bars were so short that the results can hardly be relied on ; but they will at least suffice to show the change. In fig. 7 I )m Table have attempted to give the curve of distribution XV, and have made the curves coincide with observation as nearly as pos- '• sible, making a small allow- ance, however, for the errors introduced by the shortness of the bar. It is seen that the effect of hardening in a bar of these dimensions is to increase the quantity of magnetism, but especially that near the end. Had the bar been very long^ no in- crease in the total quantity of magnetism woxdd have taken place^ but the distribution would have been changed. Hence from this we deduce the important fact thai hardening is most useful for short magnets. A nd it would seem that almost the only use in hardening magnets at all is to concentrate the magnetism and to reduce the weight. And in- deed I have made magnets hose magnetization at the central section was s in a steel wire of the same size ; but to all less strongly magnetized than the steel be- ; diffused ; and as the magnetism the steel, its It is for these reasons that many makers of surveyors' com- passes find it unnecessary to harden the needles, seeing that these are long and thin. We might deduce all these facts from the formulae on the assumption that r is greater, the harder the iron or steel. Having thus considered briefly the distribution on electro- magnets and steel magnets, and found that the formulae repre- sent it in a general way, we may now use them for solving a few questions that we desire to know, though only in an approximate manner. [To be continued] just a appea] cause the magnetism W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. Art. III.— On Recent Researches in Sound; by Wm. B. Taylor. That two so eminent physicists as Professor Tyndall in England, and Professor Henry in our own country, should have been for some time past (and almost simultaneously) en- gaged in investigating the aberrant actions of Sound, with es- pecial reference to securing increased efficiency to the national systems of Fog-signaling, is a noteworthy circumstance, and one of no slight practical importance. In view of the many disastrous marine accidents resulting from fogs on either coast, every thoughtful mind must regard with profound interest a series of researches requiring so much patient labor for the attainment of new and accurate information on the subject, and so high a degree of scientific sagacity and skill for its right interpretation. As somewhat different explanations have been offered by these two distinguished observers to account for certain abnor- mal phenomena of sound, a concise statement of the facts and views respectively announced, will interest the general reader. The records of these investigations are, on the one side, the Philosophical Transactions of the Eoyal Society of London for ^ ^ ^ • ._ ,.„ , ' tmosphere as a F.RS., a com- . read February 12, 1874 ; and on the other side, the Annual Report of the Light House Board of the United States for the year 1874; the Appendix to which is an account of the operations ot the Board relative to Fog-Signals, by Joseph Henry, Chairman of the Light House Board. In addition to these principal sources of information, reference will be made to an interesting communication read before the Royal Society, April 23, 1874, " On the Refraction of Sound," by Professor Os- borne Reynolds, and published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for 1874. The salient points of the observations are selected, and are here arbitrarily designated by bracketed num- bers, to faciii' ■ ■ L Ten years ago, or in 1865, Professor Henry commenced his investigations on the subject of Sound in connection with fog- signals, at the Light House station near New Haven, Connecticut Omitting here his careful experiments in regard to the charac- ter of the various instruments employed, the principal results then obtained, were the following: [1.] The reflection of sound was observed to be very imper- fect and inexact. A large concave reflector with a smoothly W. B. Taylor— Becent Researches in Sound. 31 plastered surface of 64 square feet, produced a sensible increase of effect in the sound, within a distance of 500 yards in front of the signal : beyond this distance, the difference became im- perceptible. It appeared that " while feeble sounds at small distances are reflected as rays of light are, waves of powerful sound spread laterally, and ev( mouth of a trumpet, at a great whole circle of the horizon." (L. H. Eep., p. 88.) A trumpet, however, which could be heard six tniles in front (in the direc- tion of the axis) was heard only three miles in the rear. (p. 92.) [2.] " For determining the relative power of the instruments, the use of two vessels had been obtained." The instruments at the light-house station were a large bell, a steam-whistle 6 inches in diameter, a double whistle, " improperly called a steam gong," 12 inches in diameter, the cups being 20 and 14 inches deep, producing the harmonic interval of i h, and a Dat " ' )aboll t ■ engine was also noted. " The penetrating power of the trumpet was nearly double that of the whistle." (Eep., p. 90.) The order of au- dible range on the first day was found to be 1st, trumpet, 2nd, exhaust, 3rd, bell, the whistle not being sounded. On the sec- ond day, 1st, trumpet and "gong," 2nd, whistle, 3rd, exhaust. In the rear the trumpet was heard no farther than the whistle. On the third day, the order was similar, — 1st, trumpet, 2nd, whistle, 3rd, exhaust, 4th, bell. (p. 91.) The opportunity was unfavorable to the observation of these sounds when they were moving directly with the wind. [3.] Simultaneous observations from two vessels sailing in nearly opposite directions, showed that the sound did not ex- tend against the wind so lar as in the direction of the wind ; and on subsequent days, results obtained from sounds moving nearly against the wind, and at right-angles to it, indicated that an opposing wind, when light, obstructed sound less than when stronger, and that wind at right-angles to the sound, permitted it to be heard farther. (Eep., p. 92.) [4.] '^During this series of investigations an interesting fact was discovered, namely, a sound moving against the wind, in- audible to the ear on the deck of the schooner, was heard by ascending to the mast-head." (p. 92.) These results were ob- tained in 1865. [5.] An experiment subsequently made at Washington during a fog, with a small clock-work alarm bell, indicated that the fog did not absorb sound ; though want of the opportunity of a comparative observation prevented the result from being en- tirely satisfactory, (p. 93.) In 1867, the principal object of investigation was a compari- 32 W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. son of different instraraents, the character and value of the im- provements made in them and especially an examination of a new fog- signal made under the direction of the Board by Mr, Brown, of New York —the steam siren (p. 194), an inctru- ment which has since played an important part in fog-signal- ing. Employing 1st a large Daboll trumpet. 17 feet long, (its steel tongue being 10 inches long), and operated by a hot air engine, 2nd, a siren operated by a tubular steam boiler, and 3rd, a steam whistle, 8 inches in diameter, — an elaborate series of experiments was made as to their penetrating power, as to the most efficient pitch or tone, (p. 95), the effect of varying steam pressure from 20 pounds per square inch to 100 pounds per square inch, (p. 97), the material and shape of the trumpets, &c. (p. 98.) [6.] During this series of experiments in 1867, attention was called by General Poe, of the Light House Board, to the cir- cumstance that the sound of the paddle-wheels of a steamer some four and a half miles distant from the shore could be dis- tinctly heard by bringing the ears near to the surface of the beach. This fact had previously been noticed on the northern lakes. The desirability of experimenting with large hearing trumpets placed near the surface of the water is suggested by Professor Henry, (p. 98.) [7.] Experiments on the divergence of acoustic beams, while indicating a considerable reduction of sound toward the rear of the trumpet, showed also very strikingly, the increasing ten- dency of sound to spread on' either side of the axis of the trumpet, (p. 98.) This corresponds with the observations [IJ on the employment of sound reflectors. An important suggestion is made, requiring experimental determination, namely, that condensed air would prolaably give more efficient results to both the fog-whistle and the siren, than steam. " Prom hypothetical considerations this would ap- pear to be the case, since the intensity of sound depends on the density of the medium in which it is produced ; and as the steam is considerably lighter than air, and as the cavities of all these instruments are largely filled with steam, the intensity of sound would on this account seem to be less." (Rep., p. 99.) In the absence of Professor Henry in England in 1 870, ex- periments were continued by General Duane, one of the Light House District engineers. These will presently be noticed. [8.] In 1872 Professor Henry observed from a steamer in the harbor of Portland, Maine, that while approaching an island from which a fog-signal was audible, — at the distance of two or three miles, the sound was lost for nearly a mile, and then slightly regained at nearer approach. This was partly in the rear of the signal ; and from its position on the farther side of W. B. Taylor — Recent Researches in Sound. 33 the island from the steamer, with a large house and rising ground interposed, Professor Henry infers that the region of inaudibility was covered by an acoustic shadow, encroached upon at a' greater distance by the divergence of the rays of sound, which, bending, reached ultimately the surface of the water, (p. 107.) A similar phenomenon was observed in the same year on approaching Whitehead station near the coast of Maine. The fog-signal was heard from the distance of six miles to about three miles, and then lost until within a quarter of a mile. (p. 107.) Again, at little Gull Island, in a vessel re- ceding from the siren signal in the direction of its trumpet axis, the sound was lost at a distance of two miles, and then regained at a distance of four and a half miles, (p. 111.) These last cases are referred by Professor Henry to a flexure of the rays of sound resulting from differences of wind velocity in the upper and lower strata of air. [9.] In 1872, it was observed that a fog-signal was heard from one station to another, while a simultaneous signal from the latter was inaudible in the opposite direction. On board a steamer approaching Whitehead station (a mile and a half from the coast of Maine), the signal, a steam-whistle, failed to be heard from the distance of about three miles to about a quar- ter of a mile from the station ; while a smaller whistle on the steamer was distinctly heard by the keeper at the station dur- ing that time. The "wind was slightly transverse to the direc- tion from the steamer to the station, but approximately in that direction. The steamer after ^topping at the station, on passing from it almost directly against a light wind, continued to hear the signal with variable distinctness for about fifteen miles, (p. 108.) In September, 1874, the keeper at Block Island, on the coast of Rhode Island, observed according times when the fog signal from Point Judith at a distance of seventeen miles was audible, and in comparing the times when tlie Block Island signal (a powerful steam siren) was heard at Point Judith, it appeared that the two sounds had not been heard simultaneously by the two keepers, (p. 112.) [10.] In August, 1873, at Cape Elizabeth station in Maine, the phenomenon of ocean-echoes was distinctly noticed on board a steamer as it was passing directly outward from the signal ; the sound after each whistle being returned from the unobstructed space beyond, (p. 109.) In September, 1874, at Black Rock Island also, shortly after each blast of the trumpet, a prolonged eciio from the open ocean was distinctly heard. The echo was observed not to be loudest at the siren -ho use, but at a point sev- eral hundred yards to one side ; the wind being in the direction oi ilie |)rimitive sound, and nearly opposite to the direction of liected echo. (p. 112.) This was supposed by Professor ' >tK. Sci.— Third Series, Vol. XI, No. 61.— Jan., 1876. W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. •y to be caused by a reflection of the sound from the crests slopes of the waves. L] On September 23rd, 1874, three observations were made pposite directions about ( a half miles from Sandy Hook, New Jersey. First, before noon with the wind from the west, second, at noon with the wind lulled to a calm, and third, an hour and a half later, with the wind blowing from the east. These observations gave the unexpected result of the sound being heard in each case uni- formly farthest from the west, irrespective of the wind. (p. 114.) On the next day, September 24th, the observations were repeated farther out at sea, or six miles from the nearest land. Small balloons, sent off with each observation on the sound, showed that notwithstanding the change of surface wind as be- fore, from morning to afternoon, the upper current of wind was steadily and continuously from the west. (p. 115.) Professor Henry supposes that in the first case " the motion of the air being in the same direction both below and above, but proba- bly more rapid above than below on account of resistance, the upper part of the sound-wave would move more rapidly than the lower, and the wave would be deflected downward, and therefore the sound as usual heard farther with the wind than against it." In the third case with a local sea-breeze in the op- posite direction, and the upper current remaining unchanged, " the sound should be heard still farther in the same direction or against the wind at the surface, since in this case the sound- wave being more retarded near the surface, would be tipped over more above, and the sound thus thrown down." (p. 115.) This explanation derived from a communication of Professor Stokes, at the Dublin Meeting of the British Association in 1857, (Kep. of B. A., 1856, p. 22 of Abstracts) would appear to be a very satisfactory solution of the apparent anomaly. II. gineer in charge < Hamp In 1870, General Duane, the engineer in charge < house District embracing the coast of Maine, New and Massachusetts, was assigned by the Light House Uoara, (as one " who from his established reputation for ingenuity and practical skill in mechanism, was well qualified for the work,") to make experiments and observations on fog-signals. Accord- ingly during the year 1871, extensive investigations were made by him at Portland, Maine. Passing over his valuable remarks on the qualities of fog-signals, the following are the principal facts observed by him : [A.] The extremely variable range of sound. The steam fog- whistles on the coast of Maine could frequently be heard at a distance of twenty miles, and as frequently could not be heard W. B. Taylor — Recent Researches in Sound. 35 two miles, with apparently the same state of the atmosphere. (L. H. Rep., p. 100.) [B.] The signal was often heard at a great distance in one direction, while scarcely audible at a mile in another direction, and this quite irrespective of the wind. (p. 100.) [C] Falling snow was observed not to obstruct sound sensi- bly, as the steam-whistle on Cape Elizabeth can be "distinctly heard in Portland, a distance of nine miles, during a heavy northeast snow-storm, the wind blowing a gale directly from Portland toward the whistle." (p. 100.) [D.] The signal station frequently " appears to be surrounded by a belt varying in radius from one to one and a half miles, from which the sound appears to be entirely absent." Receding from the signal, its sound may be audible for the distance of a mile, then lost for the distance of a second mile, and then au- dible again for a much farther distance. This abnormal phe- nomenon has been observed at various stations, and at one where the signal is on a bare rock in mid-ocean, twenty miles away from land, and with no surrounding objects to affect the sound, (p. 100.) No observations have been made to show that this occasional sound-chasm is really a "belt" entirely surrounding the signal ; a supposition which appears to be antecedently improbable, and one which would require a large number of radiating ob- servations made simultaneously, to establish it. The curious and exceptional fact, however, is confirmed by the observations of Henry [8] made subsequently. [E.] Confirmatory of Henry [1], General Duane found that a whistle in the focus of a large parabolic reflector, though giving a notably louder sound in front near the reflector, yet at the distance of a few hundred yards, had its beam of sound so spread that the acoustic shadow behind the mirror vanished, and no perceptible difference appeared. A wooden trumpet or square pyramidal box 20 feet long, in a horizontal position with the whistle in the smaller end, gave, however, more suc- co:s?fiil results, the increase of sound in the open axis being T.o>ceptible at the distance of a mile. (Rep., p. 103.) This cor- iids also with Henry's observation [7]. 1 In repetition and explanation of observation [A] General >' remarks: "It frequently occurs that a signal which r ordinary circumstances would be audible at the distance : 'en miles, cannot be heard from a vessel at the distance -ingle mile. This is probably due to the reflection men- l by Humboldt." (p. 104.) This great traveller and scien- bserver, in his graphic narrative of exploration in the i-n part of South America published at the beginning of utury, ascribes the diminished audibility during the day, 36 W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. of the noise from the cataracts of the Orinoco, at a place on the Atares, to the unequal heating of the air and the reflection and dispersion of the sound from the surfaces of the striae of differ- ing density. [Gr.] It was further noticed by General Duane that " when the sound is thus impeded in the direction of the sea, it has been observed to be much stronger inland ;" tending to confirm his idea that the sound in passing from a warmer to a cooler region of air " undergoes reflection at their surface of contact." (p. 104.) Professor Henry dissents from this opinion that the extinc- tion of powerful sounds is due to unequal density of the at- mosphere. Admitting that " a slight degree of obstruction of sounds may be observed" from such a condition, he thinks it " entirely too minute to produce the results noted." (p. 104.) He believes that the " true and sufficient cause" is the differ- ence between the upper and lower currents of air, which tends to bend the sound rays either upward or downward, as sug- gested by Professor Stokes in 1857. He adds, " In the com- meuts we have made on the Eeport of General Duane the in- tention was not in the least to disparage the value of his results which can scarcely be too highly appreciated." (Rep., p. 106.) [H.] A difficulty occasionally observed with vessels in a fog, is an apparently false direction of the audible signal ; which General Duane regards as "due to the refraction of sound in passing through media of different density." (p. 104.) [I.] While thus adopting "the conclusion that these anomalies in the penetration and direction of sound from fog-signals, are to be attributed mainly to the want of uniformity in the sur- rounding atmosphere,*' General Duane was also led from obser- vation and experiments to believe " that snow, rain, fog. and the force and direction of the wind, have much less iufluence than has generally been supposed." (p. 104.) This is in confir- mation of his previous observation [C]. III. Professor Tyndall commenced his investigations on fog-sig- nals on the 19th of May, 1873, "at the instance of and in conjunction with the elder brethren of the Trinity House," as the scientific adviser of the Corporation. [1.] On May 20, 1873, observations showed the relative pene- trating power of different instruments to be variable. At six miles the fog-horn was inaudible, while an eighteen pound gun with three pound charge was heard for ten miles. On many subsequent occasions tbe horn was found to be superior to the gun. {Trans. R. S., p. 188.) Occasionally the whistles were superior to the trumpet, though not generally so. (p. 189-) W. B. Taylor -Recent Researches in Sound. 37 Later experiments in October showed that the pitch of the sound had variable penetration on different days and even at different times on the same day. The siren (an American in- strument lent by the United States Lighthouse Board, and put in use Octobers, 1873) was generally decidedly triumphant, " ut not always so. {Trans., pp. 220, 221.) [2.] The defect of sound in the acoustic shadow of an inter- . ening obstacle (a chalk cliff) was very strikingly manifested. In June the same sharpness of shadow line was observed ; and 1 with the instruments in view, at the distance of a mile, f souiLd entirely failed near the shadow line at one side. {Trans., p 190.) [3.] Although " the wind exerts an acknowledged power over sound" yet, on the 25th of June, " when the range was only ix and a half miles, the wind was favorable ; on the 26th ^rhen the range exceeded nine and a quarter miles, it was opposed to the sound." (p. 194.) On October 11, the sound was observed to be much affected by an adverse wind. It was al?() noticed on this as well as on subsequent occasions, that ''an ()j)posing wind affects the gun-sound far more seriously than tliat of the siren." With a favoring wind, sounds were heard twice as far as with an adverse wind, even at a point "more deeply immersed in the sound-shadow." (p. 224.) fl.J July 1, at a distance of five and a quarter miles from a rotating horn it was observed that the sound was sensibly stronger in front than at the rear of the trumpet, the reduction being" estimated as seven to ten. (p. 192.) [5. J July 1, " In a thick haze, the sound reached a distance of twelve and three-quarter miles, while on May 20, in a calm and hazeless atmosphere, the maximum range was only from five to six miles." (p. 193.) And subsequent observations made in London, December 10 and 11, showed that a thick fog offered no sensible obstruction to the passage of sound, (p. 209, 210.) [6.] On July 3, at 2. 15 P. M. " with a calm clear air and smooth sea," at three miles from the signal station " neither horn nor whistle was heard. The guns were again signaled for ; five of them were fired in succession, but not one of them was heard." (p. 194, 195.) As a hot sun was pouring its beams on the sea, Professor Tyndall supposed that the copious evaporation re- sulting, would most probably act very irregularly, producing streams or wreaths of vapor, and thus render the air ^ccw/ewi; \x\\\\ these invisible cloudlets, whose surfaces would occasion a iar-v amount of repeated reflection and dispersion of the sound waves. As the sun afterward became clouded at 3.15 v. M., thy sounds of the signal were heard at three miles, and very faintly at four and a quarter miles ; and later at six miles, and 38 W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. seven and three-quarter miles. Toward the close of the day the signals were heard at twelve and three-quarter miles. (p. 196, 197.) [7.] On the same day at one o'clock, the echoes from the direc- , tion of the open sea were very distinct at the signal station. " The instruments hidden from view, were on the summit of a cliff 235 feet above us, the sea was smooth and clear of ships, the atmosphere was without a cloud, and there was no object in sight which could possibly produce the observed eft'ect From the perfectly transparent air, the echoes came, at first with a strength apparently but little less than that of the direct sound, and then dying gradually and continuously away." (p. 198.) These remarkable echoes are supposed by Professor Tyndall to be returned from the invisible surfaces of the vaporous strise, whi«3h thus render the air opaque to the sono- rous waves. Subsequently, on the 8th of October, the Ameri- can siren being just received and set up, its loud echoes were observed to be " far more powerful than those of the horn," and to last eleven seconds, while those of the horn had eight seconds duration, (p. 199.) On the 15th of October, the direction of the echoes was found to correspond with the prin- cipal axis of the direct or primitive sound ; the direction of the return sound changing with the rotation of the horn. (p. 200.) [8.] On October 8th rain and hail were found not to obstruct sound. While in the morning (after a thunder storm) from Dover and the South Foreland across the English channel " for a time the optical clearness of the atmosphere was extraordi- nary, the coast of France, the Grisnez lighthouse, and the Monument and Cathedral of Boulogne being clearly visible in positions from which they were generally quite hidden ; the atmosphere at the same time was acousticallv opaque ;" and the horn was feebly heard at six miles, (p. 205.) But in the afternoon a storm arose, and although the rain was falling heavily all the way between the signal station at Foreland and the point of observation on the steamer, " the sound instead of being deadened, rose perceptibly in power. Hail was now added to the rain, and the shower reached a tropical violence.' "In the midst of this furious sciuall both the horns and the siren were distinctly heard," and as the shower lightened, diminishing the local pattering on the deck, they were heard "at a distance of seven and "a half miles distinctly louder than they had been heard through the rainless atmosphere at five miles." (p. 206.) On the 23d of October, a similar expe- rience was noticed on land, and, contrary to the usual im- pression, snow was also observed to offer no serious obstacle to sound, (p. 207.) W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. 39 It must be borne in mind that the investigations by Profes- sor Tyndall were concladed before the publication of the United States Lighthouse Eeport. And it is noticeable that strikingly confirm each other, Tyndall's notice [1] of the inconstant relative range of dif- ferent instruments corresponds with Henry (2), though indi- cating a much more marked variability. Tyndall's notice [2] of the sound shadow, corresponds gene- rally with Henry [7], and Duane [E], but assigns a sharper definition to its limit ; probably in consequence of the inter- vention of a larger obstacle (a cliff), and an observation within Tyndall [3] confirms Henry [3] and [11]. Tyndall [4] corresponds with Henry [7] and Duane [E]. Tyndall [5] confirms by a series of careful observations, the opinion of Henry [5] and Duane [I]. Tyndall [6] confirms Duane [A and F], and in like manner adopts and extends the suggestion of Humboldt as to the cause of acoustic opacity. Professor Tyndall's admirable skill in experimental physics enabled him to illustrate and fortify his hypothesis by exhibiting in a popular lecture an apparatus for producing in an elongated box or tunnel, aerial laminae of unequal density, through which the sound from a small alarm box failed to excite a sensitive flame. That this mottled condition of the air is therefore a true cause of acoustic ob- longer doubtful. To what extent a similar condition of the atmosphere actually prevails, in view of the law of the diffusion of gases, and "how far such usual or un- usual inequalities of density in the air are capable of entirely dispersing the powerful sound of a steam trumpet or siren, at the distance of a quarter of a mile, are not so positively deter- mined. With a continuous wind any such condition of aerial *' flocculence" might be expected to be very speedily dissipated. This theory, however, fails entirely to explain the interesting observations of Henry [4, 8, and 9]. It is scarcely credible that a local screen of aerial flocculence could obliterate on the deck of a schooner, a fog-signal audible at the mast-head. Atmospheric refraction on the other hand, completely satisfies the observed condition ; an opposing wind blowing at the time. Still less successful is the theory, in dealing with the abnormal phenomenon of simultaneous audibility at long range, with the intermediate '' belt" of acoustic opacity, first observed by Duane [D]. And lastly, the assumption of simultaneous trans- mission of sound through a flocculent air-screen in one direction ami its absorption or dissipation by the screen in the opposite 40 W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. direction, (acoustic " non-reversibility,") is obviously inadmis- sible. Nor is the supposition of acoustic " diffraction" around the defined edge of a vapor cloud, more available. Professor Tyndall in his recent Preface to the last edition of "Sound" remarks upon this observation of Henry [9] — "a sufficient reason for the observed non-reciprocity is to be found in the recorded fact that the wind was blowing against the shore-signal, and in favor of the ship-signal." {Preface, p. xxi.) But he offers no suggestion how this "sufficient reason" is supposed to apply. As it is well-known that an ordinary wind cannot increase the range of sound more than two or three per cent (an amount quite inappreciable), this circumstance alone is wholly inadequate to account for the complete suppression of the shore-signal (a ten-inch steam-whistle) from the distance of three miles to a quarter of a mile, while the feebler sound of the ship-signal (a six-inch steam-whistle) was making itself dis- tinctly heard throughout the three miles. Something more therefore than the direct or convective action of the wind must be invoked to explain the facts. Tyndall's observation [7] on the aerial or ocean echoes, cot- responds with Henry [10] excepting as to the direction of the principal echo. This difference is doubtless due to the special arrangement of the surfaces or points of reflection in the re- spective cases observed. Professor Tyndall connects this phe- nomenon with that of acoustic opacity [6] ; and here again his fine experimental skill is brought into requisition to demon- strate the reality of artificial " aerial echoes." By so simple a device as the employment of the flat side of a " bat-wing" gas- jet, the sound beam from a reed instrument was shown to be entirely deflected from one sensitive flame, and reflected back toward another. This view of a relation between the acoustic opacity outward or seaward, and the reinforcement or reflection of sound in- ward, is in striking accord with Duane [G], who however in referring to the " reflection ' of sound, does not specifically allude to the ocean " echo." On the refraction theory also, a necessary result is that a deflection of the sound-beam upward in one direction, must be attended with a downward deflection and consequent incn Professor Henry crests and slopes of distant waves; (in conjunction probably with a curvature of the sound-beams, constituting a kind of acoustic "mirage.") To this suggestion. Professor Tyndall op- poses the observation that " the echoes have often manifested an astonishing strength, when the sea was of glassy smooth- ness." {Sound, Pre/., p. xxiii.) W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. 41 That this very interesting subject presents features requir- ing still further and more refined investigation is sufficiently obvious from the single consideration that aerial opacity and echo have not been shown to bear that direct relation which that this was our day of longest echoes, and it ^ day of greatest acoustic transparency, the association suggest- ing that the duration of the echo is a measure of the atmo- spheric depths from which it comes. On no day, it is to be remembered, was the atmosphere free from invisible acoustic clouds ; and on this day when their presence did not prevent the direct sound from reaching to a distance of 15 or 16 nautical miles, they were able to send us echoes of 15 sec- onds duration." {Trans., p. 202.) If these echoes were not "folded," this would represent an extreme limit of about a mile and a half. Our most powerful sounds cannot afford to waste much of their energ)- on echoes, if under the inexorable law of increasing attenuation as the square of the distance they are to be audible through a range of 16 miles : less than the 400th of the intensity at one nautical mile, that is heard at the distance of 100 yards from the source ; and one 25Hth of this at the distance of 16 nautical miles, or less than the hundred thousandth of the intensity at 100 yards. And the inference is strong that in such a case accompanying echoes must be derived from sound beams in a somewhat different Further observations are needed also to ascertain whether these aerial screens of unequal density and acoustic opacity are capable of returning echoes on opposite sides, as is to be expected if we may accept the analogy of catoptrics : and whether the echoes are as frequently heard from steamers in mid-ocean, or whether they mainly attach themselves to coast lines. As Professor Henry has well stated: "Much farther investigation is required to enable us to fully understand the effects of winds on the obstruction of sound, and to determine the measure of the effect of variations of density in the air due to inequality of heat and moisture." {L. H. Rep., p. 117.) As the last of the series here selected, Tyndalfs observation [8] agrees well with the observation of Duane [1]. [To be concluded.] J. C. Draper — Effect of Temperature on the Art. lY.— Effect of Temperature on the Power of Solutions of Quinine to rotate Polarized Light. The corrections to he applied for the same. Suggestions regarding the preparation to he used when Quinine is employed as a Medicine; by JoHN C. Draper, Professor of Natural History, College of tiie City of New York. Lsr an admirable article on " The Action of the Solution of certain Substances on Polarized Light," by 0. Hesse, in the Annalen der Ohemie for 1875, the writer after dealing at length with the varying action of the alkaloids on a beam of polarized light says : " If we now take into consideration the fact that transparent bodies, as water and alcohol, are able, under the influence of electro-magnetism to deflect the plane of polarized light, although this property does not otherwise belong to them; and that the optical powers of a substance can be influenced by mere mechanical means, as Scheibler has proved in certain kinds of glass ; we must admit, that ' There is no real relat>on between the rotating power of a substance and its molecules.' " He then adds, " The rotating power of a substance is simply the result of the variable action of its factors, viz: the arrangement of the molecules as regards the volume, the solvent, the temperature, the concentration, the chemical combination, the dissociation and other things." The importance of utilizing the rotation power of quinine for the practical purposes of analysis has induced me to en- deavor to determine, as far as possible, the corrections to be pplied for the variations in question, and especially for those dependent on temperature. Concerning this, A. Bouchardat says, " variation in temperature causes variation in the rotation power of quinine." In the paper mentioned above, O. Hesse says, " in the case of Thebaine and Quinine the rotation dimin- ishes under an increase of temperature;" but he afterward adds, "I found that the variation between 15° C. and 25° C. was insignificant." In my experiments the polariscope employed belonged to my friend, Dr. K. A. Witthaus. It was made by Laurent, of Paris, and read by verniers to two minutes. The tube was of glass 220 millimeters in length, with a lateral aperture near the cen- ter, through which a thermometer was introduced for the deter- mination of temperature. Around this tube I placed a water jacket, the temperature of which was easily raised to and kept at any required degree, by the injection of steam through a pipe which passed to the bottom of the jacket. Having satisfied myself by a series of experiments that extreme variations of temperature in the water of the jacket, or bath, did not produce Power of Solutions of Quinine to rotate Polarized Light 43 any appreciable effect upon the indications of the instrumem itself, 1 proceeded to the determination of the rotation power oJ the purest sample of quinine I could procure. Bearing in mind the statement quoted above, that the con centration, solvent and chemical combination have their in fluenceon the amount of rotation, I assumed specific conditions for the preparation of the experimental solutions which migh: be easily reproduced. They were, 1st, the use of the uncom bined alkaloid quinine, carefully dried over strong sulphuric acid, 2d, ninety-seven per cent alcohol as the solvent and a concentration proportion of one gram of quinine, to fifty cubic centimeters of the alcoholic solution. For the sake ol' con- venience the factors required in calculating the results are presented in the following tabular arrangement, viz : V. volume of 97 p. c. alcoholic solution=50 cubic centimeters. p. weight of quinine = 1 gram. A. length of tube =220 millimeters. «= angle of rotation observed with sodium flame. The formula being [a-] y =^—^X 100 and the average of 200 observations on four solutions at a temperature ol 25° C. being «= —6 -789° we have (1) 220X1 [a]y = -154-30°at26°C. Raising the temperature to 47° C. the average of 200 observations on the same solutions as before was «= —6 245° from which by the formula we have -6245°X50 ^ ^2) ^""^^^ 220X1 ^^^^^' [«]y=._141-93°at47°C. The difference of temperature in (1) and (2) being 22° C. and the difference in the angle of rotation 12 37°, it follows that 1° C.= -562° difference. That is, in a solution of quinine of the strength in question, viz : 20 milligrams of alkaloid to one cubic centimeter of alcoholic solution, for each additional degree Centigrade of temperature the angle of rotation diminishes -562 of a degree. To ensure the correctness of these figures I caused my assis- tant, Mr. Ivan Sickels, also to carry out a series of exjieriments, and the result of seven hundred observations at temperatures between 25° C. and 47° C. gave figures which only difiered in the third decimal place. We are therefore justified in employ- ing the correction in question for values in the vicinity of 25° 44 J. a Draper— Effect of Temperature on the C. which closely approaches the temperature at which such observations are made in actual practical work. Effect of variation in the Proportion of Alcohol in the Solution.— Hesse having shown that the strength of the alcohol has a marked effect on the rotating power of quinine, it followed that perhaps variation in the proportion of quinine dissolved in a given specimen of alcohol would also give variation in the power of rotation. In the examination of this problem I em- ployed a freshly prepared solution of one gram of undried quinine in 50 cubic centimeters of 97 per cent alcohol. The average of 100 readings of the angle of rotation at various temperatures from 20° C. to 50° C. was (3) «=-6-05°at35°a To the above 60 cubic centimeter solution 50 cubic centime- ters of the same alcohol were added, forming a solution of half the strength of the first solution. The average of 100 read- ings at similar temperatures was (4) «=-2-61°at36°C. To this second solution an equal volume of alcohol viz : 100 c. c. was added, giving a solution of one quarter the strength of the first. The average of 100 similar readings was (5) «=-l-27°at36°C. In the first solution (3) p = i and v= 50 In the second solution (4)^=1 and v=100 In the third solution (5) /) = 1 and i;=200 By the formula [t^]y = ^Xl00 we have For (3) Wi=^=^f-\l00=-137-50° at 35° C. For (5) [«]/ = —220")^f-X 100= -115-45° at 36° C. From the above experiments w dilution by alcohol of the soluti^ power of rotation, and as far as th ducted this effect is more marked than in the second. The repetition of these experiments bv Dr. R. A. Witthaus and Mr. Sickels. on a similar series of solutions made with the same alcohol and an undried specimen of quinine, gave the following averages of many hunclred readings. Power of Solutions of Quinine to rotate Polarized Light. 45 In the 1st solution (6)^=1 • •v=bQ - -1 = 220 ■ ■ a=-5'5S° at 29° C. In the 2d solution {1)p= 1 • • -y^lOO • • A=220 • • a=L~2-40° at 31° C. In the3dsolution(8)j?>=il . •wi=200. ./^=220- .a=- I-IV" at35° C. By the formula [a]y==^-XlOO we have For (6) Mi =— 22^°^ X 100— 126-82° at 29° C. For (7) M j - ^^o°^i— X 100= -109-09^ at 31° C. For (8) Mi = =^^-^y^\l00=^ at 35° C. Here again we perceive that the effect of dilution is to diminish the power of rotation, and to about the same extent and in the same manner as in my series of observations. It is therefore evident, that to secure results suitable for a reliable comparison, the solutions of quinine employed should be as nearly as possible of the same strength. The" proportion which according to my experience it is most desirable to use is that of about one gram of alkaloid to 50 cubic centimeters of alcoholic solution. While a greater strength than this does not present any advantage in a tube of 220 millimeters, it is objec- tionable on account of its obstructing the passage of the light. Quinine combined with Sulphuric Acid. — For the examina- this compound of quinine I prepared a solution which held the^ same proportion of quinine alkaloid in a that contained in the alco- made by taking one gram of dried quinine, dropping it into about 30 cubic centimeters of distilled water, and adding just sufficient sulphuric acid to dissolve it* The quantitv was then made up to 50 centimeters with distilled water, and the 220 millimeter tube filled therewith. At a temperature of 21° C. the average rotation as deter- mined by 100 observations was —11-36°. By the formula (9) [«]y = -^^^^XlOO=-258-18° at 21° C. The temperature of the solution in the tube was then raised bv means of the water jacket, and the average of 100 observa- tions was «=- 10-73° at 43° C. By the formula (10) Wy^3J^l^A<>xioo=-- 243-86° at 43° C. * Tliia solution was employed as being similar to that used by physicians. which held the same pro] given portion of the soluti holic solution. The soluti 46 J. G. Draper — Effect of Temperature^ etc. The difference in temperature being 22° G. and the difference in rotation 14-32°, we have r C. = -650° difference in rotation. That is, for every rise of one degree Centigrade the rotation diminishes -650 or nearly two thirds of a degree in a solution of sulphate of quinine in which there is one gram of alkaloid Effect of variation in the proportion of water. — A solution of sulphate in water prepared as before and containing one gram of alkaloid to 50 c. c. of solution when examined under a variety of temperatures, gave as the average result (11) «=-1103°at8ir C. This solution diluted by an addition of 50 c. c. of dis- tilled water by which v was raised from 50 to 100 gave under a similar variety of temperatures the average (12) ^^=-5-18"at32°C. Adding 100 c. c. of water to the last solution and thereby raising v to 200, gave under the same conditions (13) «--2-58°at31i°C. Arranging these in a tabular form we have For (11) ;?-l..y=50-.«=- 11-03° For (12) p=l'-v^lOO--a=:-b-ld,° For (13) 7^= 1.. 17=200.. a'^- 2 -58° From these by the formula \a] j ^^2^x 100 we have •- '-^ ixp For (11) Mi = =^/^^- Xl00=-250-70° at 31i° C. For (12) My--^°^— Xl00=-235-45° at 32° C. For (13) Mi =^^^^—X 100= -234-54° at 3U° C. Conclusions. (a.) In the case of the sulphate, as has also been shown by Hesse and others, there is a greatly increased rotation power imparted to the alkaloid by its union with the acid. In the experiments presented the values are : for one gram of alkaloid to 50 cubic centimeters of solution [«]y = — 154-30° at 25° C. for the alkaloid : for one gram of alkaloid + sulphuric acid to 50 c. c. of solution in water [a] / = -258-18° at 21° C, which applying the correction of -650° for each degree Centigrade becomes [^1-]/ = -255-48° at 25° C. for the sulphate. (&.) The aqueous solution of sulphate shows the same changes under the influence of temperature as the alcoholic solution of J, A. Allen— Remains of an Extinct Species of Wolf 47 the alkaloid, the difference being in the case of the alkaloid 1° C. = -562^ and in the case of the sulphate 1° C. = -650°. (c) In both the sulphate aqueous solution and the alcoholic alkaloid solution, there is the same diminished rotation under dilution, and this occurs chiefly in the first dilution as is shown in the following table : Alkaloid Solution. Sulpliate Solution. 1st dilution [o']/=— 137-50° at 35° C. Mji =-250-'70° at 3H° C. 2d dilution [a']j=~U%-U° at 36° C. [«]i = -235-45° at 32° C. 3d dilution [«Ji=-115-45° at 36° C. [a]J=~234-54° at 31^° C. In closing, I would direct attention to the results indicated in conclusion (a), wherein we find that the presence of sulphuric acid has changed the rotation power of a given weight of the alkaloid from -154-30° to -255-48°; and I ask, is it not possible, nay, even probable, that the physiological action of the drug may undergo a similar or perhaps even greater increase? In past times it was the custom to administer quinine in the form of a sulphuric acid solution, and theresults were certain and prompt even with minute doses. In recent times, on tbe contrary, the fancy of patients demands that quinine should be given in pill or some allied form ; and though greatly increased doses are used, the practitioner finds it is less certain in its effect. The cause of the difference is doubtless the change in molecular arrangement that produces the marked difference in the action of the alkaloid and sulphate solutions on polarized light ; and since the action of the sulphate solution is so much greater than that of the alkaloid solution it is evidently the proper form for the administration of Quinine as a Medicine. College of the City of New York, Oct. 29, 1815. Art. v. — Description of some remains of an Extinct Species of Wolf and an Extinct Species of Beer from the Lead Region of the Upper Mississippi ; by J. A. Allen. The remains described in the present paper form part of the collection of mammalian fossils made many years since by Professor J. D. Whitney, from the lead-crevices and superficial strata of the lead region of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois, being a part of tliose enumerated by the late Professor Jeffries Wy- man in Whitney's Geological Eeport of the Lead Kegion of the Upper Mississippi (pp. 421^23), published in 1862. The collection originally contained, besides those now de- scribed, other remains belonging to the genera Mastodon, Mega- lonyx and Platygonus, and an extinct species of Bison. In 48 J. A. Allen— Remains of an Exth.ct Species of Wolf addition to these I find an imperfect radius that seems not to differ at all from that of a young male Cervus Canadensis, and a part of another radius that 'does not differ appreciably from the corresponding part of a radius of Antilocapra Americana. The remains of the fossil deer now described are those men- tioned by Professor Wyman, namely a left metatarsus, a hume- rus and a radius, all more or less imperfect* Professor Wyman described the humerus as " closely resembling that of the red deer, and of intermediate size between this and the humerus of the caribou." As these cervine remains evidently belonged to a species different from any hitherto described, either extinct or living, I propose for it the name Ceruus Whit- neyi, in honor of their discoverer, Professor J. D. Whitney. The remains of Canis consist of a femur, two tibiae and a humerus (the latter and one of the tibiffi in perfect condition), and may not have been those mentioned by Professor Wyman, although he enumerates parts corresponding to these ; since it seems impossible that he could have described them as not dif- fering in size from corresponding parts of the "gray wolf {Canis occickriiaUs Dekay, — C. griseus Sabine)," and as being not distinguishable from them; they in reality indicating a species of nearly twice the size of that animal. The rami and " fragment of a right upper jaw" mentioned by Professor Wy- man as belonging to the same species are not now in the collec- tion. This species seems to correspond in size quite nearly with the Canis dims which Leidy described (first under the pre- occupied name of primcevus, and still later under the name of lndianensis)\ from a portion of an upper jaw found with the remains of Megalonyx, Tapirus, Equus and Cervus firgiinanus in the banks of the Ohio River near Evansville, fndiana, and also with the Canis Haydeni Leidy, described later from the Pliocene sands of the Niobrara River from a fragment of a right ramus. Since of the present species we have only a few of the bones of the limbs, it may be better to give it a provisional name than to refer it to either of the species already described, and await the reception of additional material to show their re- lationship. I accordingly propose for this species the name Canis Mississippiensis. As previously noticed, the remains associated with those now described nearly all belonged to ex- tinct species, and to the fauna immediately preceding the * Another specimen referred to under the head of Cervus by Professor Wyman as " an imperfect humerus of a much smaller animal than the preceding" belongs f Ganis primcevits Leidy, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. PhUa., vii, 200, 1854. Joum., Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., iii, 167, pi. xvii, figs. 11, 12. 1856. (Name preoccupied). Canis dirus Leidt, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1858, 21. (Same specimen.) Ganis Indianemis Leidt, Joum. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vii, 368, 1867. (Same specimen.) and an Extinct Species of Deer. 49 present. The boues, though light and somewhat soft, are still white and in an excellent state of preservation, and, though some are broken, have not suffered much abrasion. The hume- rus of the wolf shows the marks of the teeth of some small rodent. Cants Mississippiensis, sp. nov. The remains of this species, consisting of a perfect right humerus, the distal two-thirds of a right femur, an entire left tibia and the greater portion of a right tibia, indicate a species of nearly if not quite twice the bulk of the existing large wolf of the northern hemisphere {Cams lupus), and which liad a stature fully one-tifth greater, the difference between them being nearly as great as that between Cams lupus and (an is latrans. The bones do not differ appreciably in respect to form from those of Canis lupus. Their measurements (given in millimeters), in comparison with those of the corresponding bones of a specimen of Canis lupus (number 268 of the Museum of Comparative Zoology) from Kansas are as follows : — Comparative Measurements of Bones of Canis Mississippiensis and Canis lupus. Humems.- Votiil length, Greatest diameter ot proximal end, Antero-posterior diameter of head, Greatest transverse diameter of distal Greatest antero-posterior diameter of in- ner condyle, i-e/y/?//-.— Total length, _' Transverse diameter of axis and great trochanter, Antero-posterior diameter of condyles (in- beast circumference, Length of corresponding parts (distal two- 1 point of the tuberosity, .... erse diameter of distal end, ircumference of shaft, Cekvus Whitxeyi, sp. no lins of this species, consisting of lacking the proximal epiphysis, ci.-THiiU) Series, Vol. XI, ^^o. CI.-Jan! 4 50 J. A. Alleyi— Remains of an Extinct Species of Deer. lacking the distal end, and a right metatarsal, which has also lost the distal termination, indicate a species of about the same proportions as Cervus Virginianus, but much larger, considera- bly exceeding- in size Cervus macrotis. The measurements given below indicate the fossil species to have been at least one-seventh larger than C. macrotis, and apparently more than one-fifth larger than C. Virginianus. A comparison of the bones themselves give a stronger impression of the greatly larger size of the fossil species than do the tabulated measure- ments. In respect to form, the humeri of the three species do not materially differ, although the condyles in G. macrotis have a rather greater relative breadth than in either of the other species. The radius also differs but little in form in the three, bat in the fossil species the ulna (it has now been broken away and is lost) was solidly anchylosed with the radius nearly throughout its length, being free only near its distal extremity, whereas in C. macrotis it is anchylosed for only its middle por- tion, being not only free proximally as well as distally, but for quite a space near the proximal end does not even touch the radius, there being an interval of fully two millimeters between them. In 0. Virginianus the radius and ulna are nearly as fullv anchylosed as in the fossil species. The metatarsal bone is similar in form to that of C. macrotis, except that it is relatively more compressed laterally in its distal portion, and seems to have been (the distal end is lacking) relatively narrower at its lower articulation. In this respect it corresponds more nearly with the distal portion of the metatarsus of G. Virginianus, which is much rounder and relatively more slender than that of G. macrotis. The metatarsal of the fossil species differs from that of G. Virginianus, however, in having the groo^'e of the posterior surface continued much further distally than in that species. In the following table of comparative measurements the specimens taken are middle-aged males, the Cervus macrotis (No. 1781 of the Mus. Comp. Zool.), being from the Medicine Bow Mountains, Wyoming Territory, and the G. Virginianus (No. 1733 of the Mus. Comp. Zool.) from Maine. Comparative Measurements of Bones of Cervus Whitneyi, Cervus .Whit- metus. — Total length, Length from most prox. part of head to most dist. part of inner condyle, Breadth of condylar surface, A ntero posterior breadth of inner condyle, Least circumference of shaft, Chemistry and Physics. i?a(/ms.— Total length, ... Transverse breadth of proximal Transverse breadth of distal end,.. 41 Least transverse diameter of shaft, 29 Least circumference, . . - 80 Metatarsus. — Total length, . . - Transverse breadth of proximal end, 33 Antero-posterior breadth of proxi- mal end, 36 Transverse breadth of distal end, . . . . - Least transverse diameter of shaft, 22 Least circumference of shaft, 67 Length of corresponding portions (proximal five-sixths), 273 scip:ntific intelligence. I. Chemist UY and Physics. 1. Action of Nitric Acid on Silver and Copper, alone and in presence of Nitrates.— AcvfO^Tu has examined at length, in the laboratory of Dr. Frankland, the gases which are evolved by the action of nitric acid on metals, both with and without the pres- ence of nitrates in the solution. The following are his conclu- sions : (1) cold dilute nitric acid acting on copper evolves nearly pure nitrogen dioxide; (2) in presence of a strong solution of cu- pric nitrate, this same action gives rise to nearly pure nitrogen mon- oxide ; (3) potassium nitrate has no effect ; (4) ammonium nitrate causes the evolution of nitrogen and nitrogen monoxide, mixed with some dioxide ; (5) nitric acid, acting on zinc or iron in presence of ammonium nitrate, evolves nearly pure nitrogen; (6) mercury under the same circumstances acts similarly ; (7) on silver, the gaseous products are nitrogen and nitrogen dioxide, with scarcely a trace of the monoxide ; (8) in presence of ammonium nitrate, silver produces nitrogen chiefly, mixed with a little nitrogen diox- ide.—,/: Chem. Soc, II, xiii, 828, September, 1875. g. f. b. 2. On the Cofidensability of the Gaseous Products of the vis- tillation of Carbonaceous Shales. — Distillation of carbonaceous shales at a low temperature, is extensively resorted to, as is well- known, for the production of liquid hydro-carbons for iUumina- ting purposes. The large amount of gas simultaneously produced, and its high illuminating power, suggested to Coleman a se- ries of experiments upon the condensability of these gaseous pro- (lufts. For this purpose a compression-pump was provided, by which the gas was condensed into an iron tube. This tube was 52 Scientific Intelligence. slightly inclined, and at about three-fourths of its length, a reser- voir was placed. Beyond this the gas passed through copper tubes which were immersed in a freezing mixture. Upon the main tube was a safety valve which allowed the pressure to be regulated at pleasure ; this was maintained at about 140 pounds to the square inch. In the first experiment, 538 liters of gas were passed through the apparatus, in the second 467 liters, and in the third 12*74 liters. In both reservoirs, 84 c. c. of liquid was ob- tained in the first experiment, 77 c. c. in the second, and 195 c, c. in the third. Of the 77 c. c, 54 c. c. of sp. gr. -690 condensed in the first reservoir (i. e., by pressure alone without cold) and 23 c. c. in the second, of sp. gr. -650. Of the 195 c. c, 114 c. c. of sp. gr. •691 condensed at + 16°, and 81 c. c, of sp. gr. '658, condensed at — 18°. As a mean therefore each liter of gas yielded about -1.08 c. c. of liquid of sp. gr. -680 ; which is equivalent to one gallon for each 1000 feet of gas. After this treatment the gas was found to have lost its illuminating power, giving no more light when burned from a bat wing jet than does a Bunsen burner. From this and other facts, the author concluded that ethylene is absent from shale gas. Common coal gas when subjected to this treat- ment gave no appreciable quantity of liquid. The shale products, by weight, therefore, which are obtained on distillation, are :— non-luminous combustible gas 20-9 per cent ; volatile liquids, sp. gr. -680 dissolved as vapors in the gas 4-9 per cent; commercial paraffins, sp. gr. •700--800, 52-3 per cent ; tarry acid or basic bod- ies 21*9 per cent. The author proposes a method for commer- cially preparing these light oils from the ^as. — J. Chem. Soc, II, xiii, 856, Sept., 1875. ~" G. f. b. 3. On the Medico-legal determination of Arsenic. — Having occa- sion to revise, for purposes of physiological investigation, the methods ordinarily employed for the detection of arsenic hi the quantitative exactness. He thereupon devised an improved method of separating the arsenic from the organic matter, based upon those of Orfila and Filhol, and a modification of the method of Marsh, by which the arsenic is obtained in a weigliable form. The former is as follows:— 100 grams of the finely divided ani- mal matter is placed in a porcelain capsule with 30 grams pure nitric acid, and moderately heated. At first the mass liquefies, then it thickens and becomes orange-colored. The capsule is taken from the fire and 5 grams pure sulphuric acid are added. Heat is again applied till white fumes appear. Then 10 or 12 grams of nitric acid is allowed to flow drop by drop on the resi- due, and it is heated to carbonization. An easily pulverizable mass is thus obtained, which is exhausted with boilini; water, filtered, the filtrate reduced with a few drops of hydro-sodium sulphite, and precipitated as usual, by a current of hydrogen sul- phide. The arsenous sulphide, transformed into arsenic oxide l>y nitric acid, is ready for the Marsh apparatus. This consists of a * See this Journal for December, 1 875, page 474. Chemistry and Physics. 53 flask of 180 to 200 c. c. capacity, having two tubulures, and placed in a vessel of cold water. In it are placed 25 grams of pure zinc, on which is poured sulphuric acid diluted with five parts of water. The disengaged gas passes through cotton and then throujrh a tared glass tube heated to redness by charcoal for a ■^ of 20 to 25 cm. The air being expelled, the arsenic, mixed nore dilute sulphuric acid is poured into the apparatus in small portions, an hour being required for the introduction of 5 mous oxide. The !i;r™; is kept ilphate hinders, platinum chloride facilitates the separ; hours longer, by which time all the arsenic has been ( Copper sulphate hinders, plal tion of the arsenic from the solution. After the evolution of gai ceases, the tube containing the annulus of arsenic is weighed again and the amount of arsenic determined. The results are very accurate. In two experiments, in which 5 milligrams arsen- ous oxide were mixed with 100 grams muscular tissue, the rings weighed 3-72 and 3-67 milligrams respectively ; the theoretical quantity being 3-79 milligrams. In a third, 2 A milligrams arsen- ous oxide were mixed with 100 grams blood ; the annulus weighed 1-78 milligrams, the calculated weight being 1-88 milligrams. In 2-1 grams of the brain of a rabbit, fed for 15 days with doses of arsenous oxide gradually increasing from 5 to 50 milligrams, the arsenic recovered was sufficient to give a brilliant ring nearly a centimeter long. A vigorous dog was fed with gradually increas- ing doses of arsenous oxide, from 4 to 80 milligrams, for a month. 100 grams of the liver yielded 5-3 milligrams, and 100 grams of muscle yielded 0-27 milligram of metallic arsenic— J5m//. Soc. Ch., II, xxiv, 250, Oct., 1875. G. f. b. 4. Formation of Nitritea by Bacteria. -The presence of nitrites in spring waters, which has usually been ascribed to the oxida- tion of ammonia therein, is now stated by Meisel to be pro- duced by the reduction of nitrates by the agency of bacteria. In proof of this, he shows : that such water which contained bac- teria and nitrates, but neither ammonia nor nitrites, gave, after standing four days, the reactions of nitrous acid ; that antiseptics such as salicylic acid, phenol, benzoic acid, alum, and much salt even, prevent or hinder the production of nitrites ; that aque- duct-water containing pure nitrates, which alone does not show the production of nitrites even in presence of bacteria, has this change effected upon the addition of glucose, gum, dextrin cellu- lose, starch, etc., in the course of from 2 to 14 days; that freshly distdled water, boiled with glucose and niter, shows no nitrites ninates reduce nitrates to nitrites. The de- uii of cellulose by bacteria in presence of nitrates proves • is not only direct food for plants, but that it also per- its oxygen an important function in the soil. The au- 'ves that these facts have important bearings in aoricul- in medicine.-i?er. jBer?. Chem. Ges.,\\\\, 1214, Oct.'' 1875 o4 Scientific Intelligence. 5. On the supposed new Hydrocarbon., C^H^.—A short time ago Pinner described * a new hydrocarbon obtained by the ac- tion of sodium upon diehlorallylene, to which he assigned the for- mula CgH^. Furtlier investigation has shown him that the for- mula is more probably C3H4 and that the body in question is either allylene itself or an isomer of it. Assuming diehlorallylene to be CalijClg, the action of a molecule of sodium upon one mole- cule of it would be C3H2CI2 + Na2=(NaCl)2 + Cgllg; but if C3H, IS produced, two stages of the reaction are required; C,H,CL + (Na),=(NaCl),.f C^H,!^^^ and C3H,Xa,-f (H,0),=:(NaOH), + ^s\^i- In the former case the resulting aqueous solution must contain chlorine and sodium in atomic proportions ; in the latter, the sodium is double the chlorine. While more alkali than chlorine was always found, it was far from being twice the quantity. To solve the problem, therefore, the author analyzed carefully the tri- bromide. While CgtlBrg requires 13-0 per cent C and 0-4 per cent H, CgHaBrg requires 12-9 per cent C and 1-1 per cent H. In two analyses the carbon was 13-02 and 12-91, and the hydrogen 1-15 and 1-17 percent. These results, which contradict the for- mer ones, led the author to examine more carefully the composi- tion of diehlorallylene. He finds that instead of its beino- CJl^Cl-^ momzes both the above observations and settles the l.,. ... carbon as C 3 H^. Hence the product of the action of chlorine u aldehyde is not crotonyl chloral, but butyl chloral ; though t It, however, crotonic acid has been obtained by Saraow. ' l^oblem, Pinner is now occupied in solving.— yien Berl C) Ges., viii, 1282, Nov., 1875. ^ G. F. 6. On Aromatic Compounds containing Arsenic— ^licux . ^.^P'^^^i?^'^ a preliminary note upon phenyl-arsenous chloi AsClgCgH,, which he obtained by the action of arsenous chlo upon raercury-diphenyl, in a sealed tube at 170°. The reactio given as follows : Hg(CJi J, + (AsCl3),=HgCl, + (AsCl,C,H,),. It 18 a heavy, colorless, strongly refractive liquid, slowlv composed by water. Inv --'^ -• . . -^ , ' - gous metallic derivatives a viii, 1316, Nov., 1875. 7. On Diacetone-alcohol. — Heixtz, who has been recently in- vestigating the amines derived from acetone by the action of am- monia, has examined diacetonamine, to see whether the reaction with Its nitrite would result, as is general with other amines, in the production of an alcohol ; the nitrogen of both being elimi- nated as gas, and hydroxyl taking the place of amido-en. Diacetonamine oxalate was dissolved in three times its woiolit of hot water, and cooled to 5°. To the liquid kept constanth' stir- red, potassium nitrite was gradually added, in amount equal t^. * Abstract in this Journal III. x. 293. Ontobftr l ST.f; CJiemistry and Physics. 56 nearly twice the weight of the oxalate. After standing several days, the temperature being allowed slowly to reach that of the atmosphere, the liquid was distilled, whereby some rnosityl oxide passed over. The residue, freed from an oily layer by a sej)ara- tin^ funnel, was neutralized with potassium carbonate and agjita- CgHi202. Its vapor density was hoi, and it has the rational foVmula CH3 CH, . CO. CH,— C-— OIL— iie%'5 Annalen, clxxviii, 342, Oct., CH3 8, A new relation between JElectricity and Light — Mr, John Kerr has succeeded in showing that dielectiitied media are bire- fringent. Two holes were drilled in a block of plati' ghiss so us to leave a space of only about a tenth of an inch between their ends. Copper wires covered with rubber and shellac were inserted ► these holes, and the current from an induction coil capable of giving a spark of 20 to 25 cms. passed through them. A sec- ond passage is opened to the current of variable length through that when the spark passes the glass is subjected an electric strain. The light of a lamp is passed through a \icol prism, then through the glass, and finally through a second Nicol at right angles to the first. Since every plate of glass exerts a depolarizing action a certain amount of light is transmitted. This is cut off by interposing a second piece of the same plate of glass and slightly turning one of the Nicols. If the plane of polarization is inclined 45° to the line along which the electric action is exerted through the glass on closing the primary circuit, light will be visible in about two seconds. It brightens continu- ously for nearly half a minute, and if the current is broken, will gradually fade away. The light thus restored cannot be extin- guished by any rotation of the analyzer. If the plane of polariza- tion is parallel or perpendicular to the lines of electric force no action is obtained. There is as great an effect with a rapi«'/•"• 10. 'SpectUim of the light of the Urn Grotto of Capri.— Vr. H. W. VoGEL, on a recent visit to Capri, tested the light of the bh"' grotto with a spectroscope. As the entrance is only about four Chemistry and Physics. 57 feet in breadth and height, a large part of tlie light which enters passes through the water. The spectroscope show's that the red is wholly absorbed by the water, and the yellow is so far en- feebled that the D line was scarcely visible. The green, bine and indigo on the other hand shone out brightly, with the V and b lines united in a well-marked absorption line. — Pogg. ^inn., clvi, 326. 11. Aetlon of Magtietism on an Electric Sjyarh.—M. H. Bkc- QUEREL has shown that the action of a powerful electromagnet w^hen its current is broken between its poles, is purely mechanical. The spark in this case is accompanied by an explosion, and takes the form of a small ilanie, which seems to be projected by the action of the magnet as it would be by a current of air. ' The same effects may be produced by a bellows or even by the mouth. A little explosion is produced, increasing in strength with the force of the air current. It is generally admitted that the sound accompanying the induction spark is due to a sudden cx])ansif>n of the air and of the volatilized portions of the electrode, fol- lowed by a sudden return of the particles to their former position. According to this view the shorter the time of discharge the louder should be the noise. The substitution of the purely mechanical action of a current of air seems to show that under the influence of the air current as with the magnet, the effect is due to a sudden rupture of the chain of molecules which transmit the electric current of only short duration, forming the induction current. The time of dis- charge being thus notably diminished the sound accompanying it assumes a remarkable intensity. The idea of making an air-cur- rent act in this way is due to M. de Moncel, who has em])loyed it to separate the spark from the aureole. — Jonrn. de /*A '/■".," iv, 206. M. (■. r. 12. Interference Fringes. — M, Nodot suggests the sub-^titution of rhombs of Iceland spar for Nicol's prisms in forTuinix the inter- ference fringes of Fizeau and Foucault. The sunlight is admitted through a narrow slit, and focnssed on the slit of the spectroscope by a lens. Two rhombs of spar are then interposed, and between them is placed a plate of quartz, cut parallel to the axis, and in- clined 45° to the planes of polarization of the spars. Three im- ages of the rhomb are thus formed, the central one of double the brilliancy of the others, since it is formed by the superposition of two images. Allowing each image in turn to fall on the slit of the spectroscope, it will be seen that fringes are present in all three, those of the t ' ' ^ * ' '* ' " fringes of the centn effect will be double that usually attained, since a XicoVs prism necessarily cuts off at least half the light. Tlie experiment may be varied by forming the three images one aV)ove the other, and allowing all to fall on the slit of the Tpectro- seojte, when a spectrum is formed in which the upper and lower parts are fainter than the central portion, and the fringes of the 58 Scientific Intelligence. former are complimentary to those of the latter. In other words the bright portions of one set correspond to the dark parts of the other. — Jourit. de Phys., iv, 209, k. c. p. 13. The Wind Theory of Oceanic Circulation. Object torn examhied ; by James Ceoll, of H. M, Geological Survey of Scot- land. (From the Philoso]>hical Magazine for October, 1 875).*— The fundamental argume)ds of the advocates of the gravitation theory. — 1. The gravitation theorists base their argument on two principal assumptions which cannot be conceded. First, they maintain that the existence of polar water in the depths of the ocean is consistent with their theory only ; and, secondly, they assume as a necessary condition of the wind theory that the understratum of the ocean should consist of warm water. It is a well recognized fact that the ocean beyond the reach of sun heat is occupied with water of a polar temperature ; and they therefore point triumphantly to the fact as at once a proof of their position and a conclusive argument against the wind theory. But, on the other side, it will not be difficult to show that the existence of cold water throughout the ocean depths is as much a necessary result of the wind theory as of the gravitation theory, and that there is no relation whatever between the wind theory and warm water m the depths of the sea. It is supposed that the return ta tder-cwrents from the polar regions are by far too insignificant to be able to maintain at a polar temperature the great depths of the ocean. Let us examine tliis objection. It is freely admitted, nay even strenuously maintained by the advocates of the gravitation theory themselves, that the heating-power of the sun does not extend to any great depth below the surface of the ocean ; consequently there is nothing Avhatever to heat this mass of water underneath except the heat coming through the earth's crust ; but the amount of heat derived from this source is so trifling that an under-current from the Arctic regions of no great magnitude would be sufficient to keep the mass at an ice-cold temperature. On a former occasion f I showed that, taking tlie rate at which internal heat passes through the earth's surface to be that assigTicd by Sir William Thomson, the total amount received per annum l»y the North Atlantic, between the equator and tropic of Cancer, including the Caribbean Sea, is equal to only ^^ of that conveyed by the Gulf-stream, on the supposition that each pound of water carries 19,300 foot-pounds of heat,— and that consequently an under-current from the polar regions of not more than 5^ the volume of the Gulf-stream would sufiice to keep the entire mass of water of that area within 1° of what it would be were no heat derived from the crust of the earth, and an under-current of less than yV tliat of the Gulf-stream coming from the polar regions would keep the entire North Atlantic from the equator to the arctic circle filled with ice-cold water. A polar under-current half Chemistry and Physics. 59 the size of the Gulf-stream would be sufficient to keej) the cntii-e water of the globe (below the stratum heated by the sun's rays) at an ice-cold temperature. Internal heat would not be sufficient under such circumstances to maintain the mass 1^ Fahr. above the temperature it possessed when it left the polar regions. In short, whatever theory we adopt regarding oceanic circula- tion, it follows equally as a necessary consequence that the entire mass of the ocean below the stratum heated by the sun's rays must consist of cold water. For if cold water be continually com- ing from the polar regions, either in the form of under-cnrrents, or in the form of a general underflow as Dr. Carpenter supposes, the entire under portion of the ocean must ultimately become occupied by cold water ; for there is no source from which this influx of water can derive heat, save from the earth's crust, which amount is so trifling as to produce no sensible effect. It is therefore evident that the great mass of cold water occu- pying the depths of the ocean cannot be urged as an objection to the wind theory. 2. But it is asserted that the impulse of the wind on the surface of the ocean cannot produce and maintain deep under-currents. This is an objection which has been urged by some eminent phys- icists ; but it is based upon a misapprehension of the manner in which, according to the wind theory, under-currents are produced. It is true, as the objectors maintain, that a wind simply impel- ling the water forward will not necessarily produce an unasily confounded with the stratified drift. Its contact with the superficial deposits was well presented in April, 1875, near Wash- ington, at a cut at the extremity of 16th street, at the base of the Columbian College Hill, and on 14th street where it ascends the By authority of the General Assembly presented to the Legi ..—The Geolo^acal survey of North Carolina Prof.^K'err was comnu-nced in 1866. The report now is^u ler a j jg fund of the Survey." A second \olun The rei)ort commences with an introduct In^ical Geography of the State. In the course of it the fact is i-ought out tliat on the ,souf.h side of the rivers in eastern North urolina there are usually bluffs and high banks, and on the noi'th, vamps and low flats ; and that this is a feature also of eastern outh Carolina. Further, the Miocene shell-beds were found only n the south side of these large rivers. "The cause," according to ith mathematical demonstrations by Prof. Ferrel, that, "in hatever direction a body moves on the surface ot the earth, lere is a force arising from the earth's rotation which deflects it ) the right in the Northern hemisphere, but to the left in the ^tate imraeucli vohames. These tw< 1 addit o'luin c, ill tin " same series, by Dr . Leidy . The tion : ill the s| )ecies thas far diseox ered in the Cr ous \\l 'St of the Mississippi, and to describe in full those kuown by tl nor. i' rofe^sor Cope, in an ii iitrodno torv cl r/r"; fiih VV'a , '■ on th< rt T of t ^ sicrnilieaiice of paleo he classification and ntoloo-i distril calscie Cretan leuo. it> of the West ; in Part II, i rives " De-crii of tllO ' L"r(-tacooii^ Vertebi •atesof the Westf'^ and in troduoi j^nop .is of the tes'of: America The 57 plates of ilhistrations are full of figures, and The w hole number of species of Reptiles in the American Cre- taceous beds is stated as follows: Dinosaurs, 18; Pterosaurs, 4; Crocodili.uis, 1 J ; Sauropterygia (Plesiosaur>, etc.), 13; Testudi- nates, 4-^ ; Pythonoinorphs (the Mosasaur tribe), 50 = 147. Of the last tribe, 15 species occur in the Greensand of Xew Jersey, 7 in the Kotten limestone of Alabama, 26 in Kansas, and one Irom each, North Carolina, Mississippi and Xebraska. Only four are known from Europe. T^-ofessor «.\)i)e, besides bringing out bis own laiLTc contribu- tion':; to the subiect, mentions also those of Dr. Lcidv aid I'lo- fc'-sor Marsh, yet not always in a way to do them "lull ju^tirt.'. He appears to have forgotten one of his* statements, -when penninL^ the note to page 124, on Clidastes propi/thou. The noti na<)K)u\. It- ^i/e is 24 inches by ItJ. It contains all the det:iil nnd ac(Mirac\ j)ossiblc on a chart of this size in the pre«ient state of the science. The ixcvdogical areas are well distinguished by i iiur.cious system of lining, instead of by colors, and hence the doihu (ach. It should be in the hands of all students in geology, and is :ibsolutelv indispensable to every teacher. \1. EJnhitun;/ Ih die Krt/staUbererhnung ; von Prof C^rJ Ki ! IV. Krste Vbtlieiluno. 208 pp. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1875.— Pio' Klein dc\ clops tin sul>j,c't of Crystallography from the standpoint blems Avhich : troilite by Dr. "^mitli was read befo and careful malvscs that troilite, oi selected specimen of the latter affording Inn meteoric sulphide is found imbedded in a n nr.il supposition is that the sulphur Mould iron ■' Hence, he ates of a course of popular lectures by l*rof. Koch, tlioroughly at 1. Karl Kocti, Varies >nt(/e/i fiber Dendrolor/ii Dendrology^ delivered in Berlin in tiie wint ^ "Stutto-art, F. Enke, 1875, 1 by 1 lightful to hear, as they are pleasant to read, and are full of inter- esting matter. It is only the first course of a series which is to be continued this winter. The first division, of seven lectures, is a histor\ of landscape gardens and gardening. The second divis- ■ ■ " , growth, and life of cal changes. The third di\ ision, ui-^lcotures, treats of Coniferous trees,— all in a pojmlar way. , Koch insists that the tAVO willows confounded m^ tonus of A'eeping Willow, are neither of them Persian or A.^yiiau, ex- .T:i]);ui. One of them may have reached Western Asia, how- , early enough to have been collected by Tournefort, an.— Tins lonhed be- yond ,are efficient fiy-eatchers ; •ritation ; that they equal elongs only t is propagated thence down their stalks and across the blade of the leaf through the cellular tissues ; that they accurately and deli- cately discriminate animal or other nitrogenous matter from any- thing else ; that the glands absorb such matter ; that when ex- cited by contact, or by the absorption of nitrogenous matter by the viscid enveloping liquid, an acid secretion is poured out and a ferment analogous to pepsin, the two together dissolving ani- mal matter; so that the office and action of these glands aretnilv analogous to those of the glands of the stomach of animals. Finally that animal or nitrogenous matter, thus absorbed and digested in the glands, is taken in, and conveyed from cell to cull through the tentacles into the body of the leaf, was made evident by ocular inspection of the singular changes in the { they contain. So particularly have the investigations 1 and so conscientiously recorded, that the account of those relating to one species of Sundew, Drosera rotundifolia, hlls 2VY pages of the Knglish edition, or more than half of the book. After all it ends with the remark : " and we see how little has been made out in comparison with what remains unexplained and unknown." The briefer examination of six other Sundews follows, some of them equally and others less efficient fly-catchers and feeders. DioNCfa is next treated, but with less detail. Indeed, except as to the particular nature of the secreted digesting fluid, there i< little m this chapter that had not been made out or alreadv hecouie familiar here. That the secretion has digestif )ed, alonsr with whatever has ' through t ^ __ „.„^,„^^ dies, or spiral vessels' and that the latter do not^originate the s tion, as Kees and Wills in a recent paper seem to suppose they must, appears to be shown by the facts, and was antecedentlv probable. Iho wonderful discovery made by Dr. Burdon Sanderson is now univers;illy known: namely, that there exists a normal electrical curreni in the blade and footstalk, and that when the leaves are irritated the current is disturbed in the same manner as takes i)lace during the contraction of tlie muscle of an animal." The conclusion here needs to be checked by parallel experiments, to see whether the same reversion of current does not take place whenever a part of any leaf or green shoot is forcibly bent upon Drosophyllum, a rare representative of the order, confined to Portugal and Morocco, grows on the sides of dry hills near Oporto; so that, as to station, it is the very counterpart of Aldrovunda. Its leaves are long and slender, in the manner of our Brosera fili- formis, and are covered with mucli larger glands. To these flies adhere in vast numbers. " The latter fact is well known to the villagers, who call the plant the 'fly catcher,' and hang it up in their cottages for this purpose." Mr. Darwin found the glands in- cu|)able of movement, and their behavior in some other respects diifors from that of Brosera ; but they equally secrete a digestive juice. Insects usually drag ofi" this secretion instead of being fixed on the glands by it ; but their fate is no better ; for as the poor animal crawls on and these viscid drops bedaub it on all sides, it sinks down at length exhausted or dead, and rests on a still more numerous set of small sessile glands which thickly cover the whole surface of the leaf. These were till then dry and inert, but as soon as animal matter thus comes in contact with , with even greater readiness than that of Brosera. ' Mr. Darwin next records various observations and experiments upon more ordinary glandular hairs of se\eral plants. To certain Saxifrages his attention was naturally called, on account of the presumed relationship of Broseracem to this genus. He declares that " their glands absorb matter from an infusion of raw meat, from solutions of nitrate and carbonate of ammonia, and appar- ently from decayed insects. To such plants the vast number of little insects caught may not be useless, as they may be to many other plants (tobacco, for instance) with sticky glands, in which Mr. Darwin could detect no power of absorption. The prevalent idea, that glandular hairs in general serve merely as secreting o - excreting organs, and are of small or no account to the planv^ must now be reconsidered. Those of the common Chinese Pnm- rose {Primula Sinensis) although indiflerent to animal i refusions, were found to absorb quickly both the solution and vapor of car- bonate of ammonia. Now, as rain-water contains a small per- centage of ammonia, and the atmosphere a minute quantity of the carbonate or nitrate, and as a moderate-sized plant of this primrose was ascertained, (by estimate from a count on small measured nous organs are neither r just sense insignificant. Mr. Darwin next investigates the densely crowded short glan- dular hairs, with their secretions, which form the buttery surface of the face of the leaves of Pinguicuht., the Butterwort. He finds that the leaves of the common Butterw^ort have great numbers of small insects adhering to them, as also grains of pollen, small seeds, &c. ; that most substances so lodged or placed, if yielding e, fibrin, curds of milk, 5 fed, by placino- upon i , folds oM-r Avitliin t^venty hour's to envelope them; and when placed on :i medial line, :i little below the a])ex, both margins incurve, lb- conchides " tliat Pbxjuicula mdgoris^ with its small roots, is not only supported to a hirsfe extent by the extraordinary number ot insects wliich it habitually captures, l)ut likewise draws .on.e nourishment from the ])ollen, leaves, and seeds of other plants, which often adhere to its leaves. It is thert>fore partly a vege- other specii^s were found capable of irreater and more enduring inflection, and the glands excitable to increased secretion even by bodies not yieldincr soluble nitroo-enons matter. The aquatic type of this family is rtrlcularia ; and tlie bladder- i--^//./.ris to DioiHut iMu\ JJroi'ra—Xhe bladders imprisoning minute aquatic animals, by a mechanism almost as ingenious as that of l>io„ff<, itself ObserAations of the same kind were made in this country by Mrs. Treat, of Vineland, New Jersey, before Mr. Darwin's investigations were made known. These submerged aquatic stomachs, ever deluged with water, apparently do not really digest their caijtures, but merely absorb the products of Tlie same must in all probabil ity be said . >f such Pitcher as >>roducts by each of tl le three we ll-marke families of plants, are highlv suggestivi'. InconcliHiinnrthisnoticeofa book for wh ich we have 11. to do jnstice-i>ut which is s [1 the h: ui-:s of interested readers-there is som h: degrees to discover our discoverer^. In this .Journ: d. onlv back as the number for .Vu-ust , !S7:5, is :i , loticc ui the 's System ot IJotanv, uilhou ence to any source, and on inquiry we leani. L'd that the aul Bd-nnj and Zoology. 73 for tlje statement was forgotten. But early in the following year, when the monograph of the order ai)peared in the last volume of DeCandollo's Frodromus, a reference was found to a pa])er by Dr. Macbrido in the Transactions of the Linnsvan Society. His observations (made upon K voriohirin), it appears, were comniu- Tiicated to Sir J. E. Smith, read before the Liinuean Society in 1815, and published soon after. 'J'hey are referred to by his 'sur- viving friend and associate, Eliott, in his well-known w ork, and therefore need not have gone to oblivion, or needed rediscovery here in our days by :Mr. Grady and Dr. 3!ellicliamp, the latter greatly extending our knowledge of the subject. Probably the main tacts were all along po])ularly known in the regions tlicse species affect, and where their use as fly-traps is almost immemorial. lint the gist of these remarks is, that a col- league has just called our attention to an earlier ])ublication than INIuscicapa',"' by iienjamhi Smith Barton (one of our botanical fathers), published in Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine, for June, I 812. Among other matters not bearing directly upon this point, he says of Sarra^-en?'/, withor.t reference to any particular sjx'cies: "A honeved fluid is secreted or deposited on the inner suH:ice of the hollow leaves, near the'ir /«ux or opening; and this fluid allures grea1 taui nto the ascidia 'll re is earlier pul licationbvthre ^ years. Vet w ^ su.pect that Dr. iarton knew little about it at t .•;t hand , and ve linValUht specie ot the uenus appi u- to possess I kind of glan( ular tunc tion,- without "^men- tioning those that have it, or the absence in tht only ("V gi-owing aro cmd him at the north; ; nd he adds t ,at he '' u a ^ entirely unacq uainted with thi s curious ly . . . when 1 pu ,r.shed the hrs edition of my Elements of Rot >\ hei I printed the appendix (in vc 1. i) to t l!!iV,li' ion of this vohi work.;' Now] sss Septend . dated Vi -1. ' iut ^ia id the brhle lefly UKU e IMO and 1- 1 : he corrt sp()ntt: thn ud. W horn. f not diiec tly, his observa tions would pro .ably find their A •ay at r the 1 Philadelphia nat The Mor.me> \; 0. V and IlubiU of ru nhinq Pioni, ; by ClIA RLi:s DAinvrx. Second editio 1, revise( , with L(.n( on: :\iiirrav. 1875, pp. 208. -This n en -t ins. trea- tise va^ read to the Linn.Tan Societ ' over te 1 vears ao(, :ii 1 pub- li^lu 1 in the ninth a )lunie of its Joi rnal, in 1S05. Then- >epa •ate issue, whicl has long been e ^hausted It i^ now ca r. fuUv ite^'> rruiury of the (Greenwich Observa- 76 Miscellaneous Intelligence. neglected. Under the successive superintendency of Fallows, Henderson, and Sir Thomas Maclear, the latter of whom arrived at the Cape in 1834, and of E. J. Stone, who arrived in 1870, the work of the Observatory has been carried on under very adverse circumstances, and the 'results thus far accomplished have some- what disappointed the earlier expectation, and compare unfavora- ■ of Gilliss and Gould, alogue of star places; i able to detect the parallax of Alpha Centauri, and to produce a very valuable catalogue of very accurate places of a number of stars.' Sir Thomas Maclear seems to have concen- arc of the meridian, of the value of which work there can be but one opinion ; but this was allowed to disorganize the other work of the observatory to such an extent that, as" Mr. Stone states, he in 1870, found himself with a very limited staff, unexpectedly con- fronted with the results of 36 years of miscellaneous observations in all stages of reduction, nothing completed, and nothing available for publication and use, without a considerable expenditure of time and labor. Under these circumstances, he has judged it best to pay the later years of observation, and has com- pilQdl c similar in all respects to the Greenwich instrument, which has been in use since 1851. The Cape Catalogue of Mr. Stone, is accompanied by a comparison of the right ascensions of the clock stars as observed at Greenwich and the Cape of" Good Hope, by means of which comparison some systematic errors are brought to light, which are, however, very small in extent, and may be them- sehes attributed to the effect on the clock of rapid changes of temperature in the evenings during December, January, and Feb- ruary. The latitude of the observatory must, he thinks, still be considered as uncertain. The printing of the work, which was done at Cape Town, does not suffer by comparison with similar work in England. -^. Observatori/ in the Pyrenees. — An observatory has been estab- lished on the Pic de Midi, similar to that on the Puy de Dome, and chiefly through the efforts of General Nansouty. — I? Institute IV. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. 1. Reports on the Meteorological, Magnetic, and other Ohsen^a- tions of the Dominion of Canada for the calendar year ending Deceinher 81, 1874.— In this volume the Minister of Marine and Fisheries, Honorable A. J. Smith, has given in full a reprint of the tri-daily simultaneous observations niade at a large number of stations throughout the Dominion of Canada, together with tables of monthly and annual means, resultant direction, and velocity of the vnwA, etc. In consideration of the exceedingly small annual Miscellaneous IntelUgeace. 77 appropriation at the disposal of Professor Kinu^ston, Siipi' enf of the Meteorolo^if-al ofli.e of the J)ominion, it -.ou that the eontributions to meteorology 1>V that State are creditable. Prof. Kino-ston states that feuular weather are teletiraphed from fifteen Canadian stations to the \ dntond- d seem highly Burean at Washington, in oxehange for which a lew reports arc sent irom the United States by telegraph, and a large number by mail. Tlie only station in Canada at pixsent furnished with self- reeording a[)pnratns is tliat at St. Johns College, at Winnipeg, where, by priyate inunificenee, an anemograph has been set in operation' by the Bishop of Ihiperts Laud. With reference to .Montreal, which raidis as one of the chief stations, it is stated that mountains, is singnlarly ill adapted for anemometric obseryations, on which account'an aru'mometer was, in August* IST-t, erected on a pole on the summit of tlie moinitain, and connected by telegraph feet lower down on the'inountai-.i. There art- in Canada thirty-fiye Toronto. It would appear that these stornt warnings do not give so much satisiaction in the Ca!iac(mu;\/ their VK'iriiborVu)'>d. "'"Anumg' the rppen- obseiVatorv'and hou^ weii linivhc./oaVly hi May. an.'f the instru- ment, etc.; were removed thither. Tlii> obsoV%atory contains rooms for the equatorial, the transit and computing room and ])hotographic. and is directly adjacent to the dwelling of the Director, Commander E. I). 'Asho. The principal work of the erpiatorial consists in taking ])hott)graphs of the sun's surface from point of view, is to irive the correct time to the shipph.g. The time bull Is HOW dropped by ch ctricity, and the m-tliod has been 2. Mf St. A7/./.s>. -The recent meas,uvmei.tw>fMr. W. II. Dall, Acting Assistant V.^. Coast Survey, of the height of .Alt. St. Elias, make it 19,464 feet. The memoir, — a part of the Coast Survey 78 Miscellaneous Intelligence. IJetween Yokohama an.l Honolulu the depth is remarkably uni- form, averaging 2,858 fathoms, and the material of the i)ottom is^' Report lor 1875 — is illustrated hy a map and also a plate contaifi- ing two views of the Mountain. The views, taken at distances of 53 and 24 miles, evidently have the vertical scales very greatly in- creased, as compared wdth the horizontal, but how much is not 3. ISea-hottom and Zoology of the deep sea: the Challenger's Observations ; by Wtville Thomson. — A gigantic Hydroid was obtained June 17th, in the North Pacific, 34° 37' X., 140° 32' K, at a depth of 1,875 fathoms, where the temperature was 1°"7 C. and the bottom gray mud. The species seemed to belong to Monocau- lon of Sars, a Corymorpha-like solitary polyp ; it measured from tip to tip of the expanded tentacles 9 inches, and the height of the hydroid was 7 feet 4 inches. Another was taken July 5, in 37° 41' N., 177° 4' W., at 2,900 fathoms, the bottom red clay, but with manganese nodules, the weight of which tore the trawl. The hydroid is too delicate in texture to bear the rough change from the bottom to the surface. The tentacles of the proximal range are about 100 in number and 4 inches long. The sporosacs are in close tufts at the base of the tentacles. This gigantic (Jorymor- pAoiV? was associated on June 17th, with Ophidoids, Macrurids, Scopellids, several Gasteropods, Crustaceans related to Borippe, Galathen, (JaHdids, and a fine t^calpellum, a few Annelids, many Echinoderms {Brisinga, Phormosoma, Opjhiurids, Holothiirids), and on July 15th, there were some Ajjhroditids, a sea-urchin related to Diadema, Holothurids, sponges. The clayey material of the bottom, brought up June 17, was in a peculiar concretionary state, and bored by an Annelid of the Aphrodite group, some of which were still in the bui-rows. In a sounding of June 28th, of 2,800 fathoms, a Rhizopod-like form was obtained, between the Radiolarians and the Foramini- fers, its test siliceous as in the former, but the shape as in the latter ; their tests were extremely abundant in the " red-clay." There were also obtained a IScalpellum, a number of Annelids, Echinoderms of the genera Pourtalesia, Archaster, Brisinga, A/)tedou, a Cornularia, specimens of Fungia symmetrica, some Actini'v. On July 2d, in 2,050 fathoms, the bottom was a light brownish ooze, with many Glohigerina shells; several specimens of an undescribed Hyalonenia were brought up. The cold water which fills up the trough of the Pacific is regarded by Professor Thomson " an indraught from the Southern fSea," as in the Atlantic ; and in both oceans the bottom water is constantly moving northward. The temperature of the water for the first thousand fathoms in the Pacific, in the corresponding latitude of 35° N., is much lower than in the Atlantic. Further, in the Atlantic the temperature sinks gradually, though very slightly, through the last thousand fathoms to the bottom, while in the Pacific, the minimum temperature of 1 *7 C. is reached at a depth not greater than 1,400 fathoms, and from that depth to the bottom the temperature is the same. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79 ''red clay," somewhat grayer than the typical "red clay," con- taining; some pumice, numerous siliceous shells, the proportion of which increases with the depth, and scarcely a trace of carbonate of lime (although the water swarms with " ooze-iorming " Forami- nifers). The pumice was often penetrated with peroxide of man- ganese, and concretions of the same oxide were abundant in the "red clay." These concretions are rounded or mammillated, fibrous-concentric in structure, and often have a nucleus of some foreign body, as pumice, a shark's tooth, or some other organic relic ; and in one case a fragment of a Plexactinellid sponge was preserved as a beautiful fossil at the middle. " The singular point is the amount of this manganese fonuation and the vast area which it covers." Life was found to be, " although not very abundant in species by no means meagre," in the North Pacific at depths between 2.000 and 3,000 fathoms, all the larger inverte- brate groups being represented. In one dredging, at a depth of 3,125 fathoms, a small sponge was obtained, a species of Gor- iiularia., an Actinia, an Annelid in a tube and a Bryozoon. " We were again struck with the wonderiul uniformity of the fauna at these deptlis — if not exactly the same species, very similar repre- sentatives of the same genera existing in all parts of the world." — Extracts front articles in Nature of Oct. 28 and Nov. 25. The Challenger arrived at Valparaiso November 19th, on her 1875; by Lt. Col. under the orders of Gen. P. H. Sheriden. 17 pp. 8vo, with a map. Washington, 1875. — This expedition succeeded in navigating the Yellowstone River to a distance of 483 miles above its moiith, the only obstacles to farther progress being the excessively rapid current. It was found that the water of the Yellowstone is deeper than that of the Missouri, above the point where the two rivers Some interesting views accompany the report, and also a N^ebraska and J)akoto. in the years "l 855, "'56, '57; by Gen. G. K. Waekex, IT. S A. 125 pp. 8vo. Washington, 1875.— This is a reprint of the report of Gen. Warren, originally published in 1858, and noticed in this Journal II, xxvii, 378. The present volume is issued in view of the general interest now felt in the Black Hills country, the original report being practically inaccessible. 6. Atti della Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali Residente in Pisa. Vol. I. Parts 1 and 2. 146 pp. roy. 8vo. Pisa. 1875.— These first publications of the Tuscan Society of Science in Pisa, contain papers on the mammalian fauna of the Pliocene of Tuscany, by C. I. F. Major; on the fishes of the same by R. Lawley; on Eocene corals of PMule by D'Achiardi ; on the natrolite (savite) and analcite of Poraaja, by D'Achiardi, and other papers geological and zoological, by Meneghini, De Stefani, Baraldi, Richiardi, with one botanical, Sulla teoria Algolichenica by G. Arcangeli. ' Miscella n eous In teUige.nce. Emile Kopp, Professor of Chemistry in the Polytechnic; School of Zunch, died on the 30th of Kovemher at the ao-e of fifty- nine years. He was an Alsatian by birth, and held a chair in the University of Strasbourg previous to 1848. He took an active part in the revolution of that year, and was one of the Dep- uties who escaped to Switzerland at the time of Louis Xanoleoii's coup d'etat. While residing in Switzerland he w; Professor of Chemistry at Lausanne, but he left the untarily, with the other French exiles, when their rendition was demanded by the French government. Passing into Enoland, Kopp supported himself for several years as a private tutor at ]Man- chester, and at the same time familiarized himself with the crreat chemical industries of that vicinity. The influence of his sojourn in England was strikingly manifest throughout his subsequent career. After the lapse of several years he was permitted to return to t ranee on the parol of one of the Senators of that peiiod (prob- ably M. Dumas) who pledged himself that the returned exile should in no way interfere with the imperial o-overnmeut. On reaching Paris, Kopp opened a private laboratol-y for instruction m applied chemistry, which was maintained for several years, and was always filled with students. From this laboratory he was called to the charge of extensive works for the manufacture of steel at Saverne, m the east of France, which place he left some years later to assume the chair of applied chemistry in the Uni- versity of Turin, whence he was soon called to Zurich. ^ h or many years Kopp exhibited great literary activity, and he IS probably best known to the generality of chemists from his remarkable compilations relating" to the history and pro'ness of the coal-tar colors and of the madder colors. He was larSelv in- strumental in writing Hofmann's famous report on the Cheinioal Products and Processes of the International Exhibition of I'^tj" as was duly acknowledged by Protl Hofmann. ^ This report, as is well known, has served as a model upon whit-h most subse([uent reports upon chemical matters have been based. But in s))ite of much writing, he accomplished a great deal of work in the way ■'"" ably m respect to the coloring matters just men- novel processes for making soda from saft^ and Vbi^the^rec^ sulphur from soda-waste, and published numerous obsei upon a great variety of subjects. His familiarity with the methods and processes of t. chemistry, as applied in different countries was very ^n hisjudgment of them was singularly sound and impaTti labored untirmgly to inform himself of all improv--'-tc covenes m the domain of chemical - * - ^ at the time of his death one of the ' ' ' " .vT"r"'T "■' """' i ■ -^ -\^ - ■> 1 i 1 " . \ ^ fi^ ■ ' ~- ^ V -^ 1.' .■■■ 1 - % : - THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND AETS. [THIRD SERIES.] Aet. VL — Sir William Edmond Logan.* On the 22nd of June, at Castle Malgwyn, Llechyrd, South Wales, Canada's veteran geologist passed from his labors. For several years his health had been failing, and he felt more and more the need of rest and change of climate. Accordingly, in August, 1874, he crossed to the mother country, intending to pass the winter there, and then to return to his work in the spring. But rest and a more genial clime were unavailing, and now — kindest of friends, most indefatigable of workers for sci- ence and for his country — he is no more ! . William Edmond Logan was born at Montreal, in 1798. He was of Scottish parentage, and his father, after a residence of many years in Canada, returned to Scotland, and purchased an estate near Stirling, known as Clarkstone. His education was ■; Mr. Skakel's school, in this city, and completed at the gh School and University of Edingburgh. "■ I leaving college he betook himself to mercantile pursuits, and we find that in 1818 he entered the counting-house of his uncle, Mr. Hart Logan, of London. Here he remained for High On i years ology, making geological excursions into the country whenever opportunity offered. In 1829 he paid a visit to Canada ; but, returning the same year, took up his residence at Swansea, in South Wales, where he was appointed manager of a copper-smelting establishment, and of coal mines, in which an uncle of his was interested. In * Obituary notice read before the Natural History Society of Montreal, October 82 Sir William Edmond Logan. 1834, he made a tour through France and Spain, visiting many of the mines in the latter country, and making many observa- tions on the geology of the regions through which he passed. In 1838, his uncle dying, Mr. Logan resigned his position at Swansea. But the nine years he spent here were well-spent years ; for not only had he gained a practical knowledge of mining and metallurgy, which afterwards proved of the greatest value to him, but had done a large amount of very excellent geological work — work which caused Dr. Buckland, of Oxford, to say of him, " He is the most skillful geological surveyor of a coal-field I have ever known." During his stay at Swansea, he was an active worker for the interests of the Eoyal Institution of South Wales. He was Honorary Secretary and Curator of the geological department, and the Institution is indebted to him for valuable collections of minerals and metallurgical pro- ducts, besides books, drawings and laboratory apparatus. The whole of his geological work in South Wales he placed gratuit- ously at the disposal of the Ordnance Greological Survey of Great Britain, and it was not only gladly accepted, but pub- lished " without alteration,'' and made the basis of future work in that region. Concerning it, Sir H. T. De la Beche after- wards wrote as follows : " Prior to the appearance of the Geological Survey in that part of the country, Mr. W. E. Logan had carefully investigated it, and at the meeting of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, held at Liverpool in 1837, he exhibited a beautifully executed map of it. 'The work on this District being of an order so greatly Liperior to that usual with geologists, and corresponding, linuteness and accuracy of its detail, with the maps ai ons executed by the Ordnance Geological Survey, we f 1 of it, when Mr. Logan most hand- somely placed it at our disposal. Having verified this work . with great care, we find it so excellent that we shall adopt it for that part of the country to which it relates, considering it but fair and proper that Mr. Logan should obtain that credit to which his labors so justly entitle him. " His sections are all levelled and measured carefully with proper instruments, and his maps are executed with a precision only as yet employed, except in his case, on the Ordnance Geo- logical Survey ; it being considered essential on that survey, for the right progress of geology, and the applications to the useful purposes of life, that this accuracy and precision should be attained." In 1840, Logan read a paper before the Geological Society of London, in which he explained, for the first time, the true rela- tion of the Sligmaria underclays to the overlying beds of coal, Sir William Edmond Logan. 83 showing that the underclaj was the soil in which the plants grew which were afterwards converted into coal. Of the 100 thick and thin coal-seams in the South Wales coal-field, he found that not a single one was without an underclay, and the inference appeared to be that there was some essential connec- tion between the production of the one and the existence of the other. "To account," said he, "for the unfailing combination by drift, seems an unsatisfactory hypothesis ; but whatever may be the mutual dependence of the phenomena, they give us rea- sonable grounds to suppose that in the Stigmaria ficoides we have the plant to which the earth is mainly indebted for those vast stores of fossil fuel which are now so indispensable to the comfort and prosperity of its inhabitants." So much did he become interested in this subject that in the following year (1841) he crossed to America, and visited the coal-fields of Pennsylvania and Nova Scotia, in order to ascer- tain whether the same conditions existed there. Such he found to be the case ; and in the following spring he read an interest- ing paper before the Geological Society, the object of which, to use his own words, "was to state the occurrence immediately below the coal-seams of America of the same Stigmaria beds as had been observed below those of South Wales, and to show the importance of this prevailing fact." Shortly after his re- turn from America, he also visited coal-seams in the neighbor- hood of Falkirk, Scotland, there too, finding the St'gmaria clays beneath the coal. It was during his visit to Nova Scotia, in 1841, that he dis- covered in the Lower Coal-measures of Horton Bluff the foot- prints of a reptilian animal — a discovery which, perhaps, failed to attract as much attention as it deserved, although it was the first instance in which any trace of reptiles had been detected as low down in the geological scale as the Carboniferous. The winter of 1841-42 was also spent in Canada, and the facts were obtained for a paper on the packing of ice in the St. Lawrence, which was subsequently read before the Geological Society of London. Such, briefly, was the career of Logan previous to his ap- pointment as' Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. Already he had acquired a reputation in Britain as a geologist, and had given himself the best of trainings for the work upon which he was about to enter on this side of the Atlantic. But what was meantime passing in Canada? * * * * "In July, 1841, in the first United Parliament, a petition from the Natural History Society of Montreal, praying for aid to carry out a systematic geological survey of the Province, was presented by Mr. B. Holmes. It was "referred to a select committee consisting of Messrs. Holmes, Neilson, Quesnel, Mer- 84 Sir William Edmond Logan. rit, and the Hon. Mr. Killaly, but it was not reported on. A similar petition was presented bj Mr. Black, from the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, which was read. The gov- ernment took up the matter, and on the motion of the Hon. B. Harrison, the sum of £1,500 sterling for the purpose of a sur- vey was introduced into the estimates."* Lord Sydenham dying in 18-41, it fell to his successor. Sir Charles Bagot, to appoint a Provincial Geologist. Sir Charles referred the matter to Lord Stanley, Secretary of State for the Colonies, and His Lordship, on recommendation of Murchison, De la Beche, Sedgwick, and Buckland, offered the position to Mr, Logan in the spring of 1842. Logan was now thoroughly in love with geology, and seeing in Canada the grandest of fields for original research, at once accepted. Still he well understood the diffi3iilties which lay before him, and shortly afterwards addressed the following words to De la Beche : *' You are aware that I have been ap- Sointed by the Provincial Government of Canada to make a eological Survey of that Colony. The extent and nature of the territory will render the task a most laborious one ; but I am fully prepared to spare no exertion of which I am capable to render the work, when it is completed, satisfactory to those who have instituted the examination and creditable to rajself * * No one knows better than yourself how difficult it would be for one person to work with effect in all the branches of so extensive a subject. To carry out the field-work with vigor, to reduce all the sections with the requisite degree of accuracy, and map the geographical distribution of the rocks, to collect minerals and fossils, and to analyze the one, and by laborious and extensive comparisons, to determine the geologi- cal age of the other, is quite impossible without a proper divis- ion of labor. * * In Canada, all the expensive means of palseontological comparison have yet to be brought together. There is no arranged collection of fossils, and no such thing as a geological library to refer to." Arriving in Canada late in August, 1842, Logan devoted several months to making a preliminary examination of the country, and to collecting information with regard to the topo- graphical work which had been accomplished. This was done entirely at his own expense. In December, he returned to England to fulfill engagements there, but came out again in the following spring. During his visit to the old country, he was so fortunate as to secure the services of Mr. Alexander Murray, a gentleman who afterwards proved himself an invaluable assist- ant and friend, and who has contributed largely to our knowl- edge of the geology of Canada, and, more recently, to that of Sir William- Edmond Logan. 85 Eeaching Halifax on the 20th of May, Logan spent several weeks in examining portions of the coal-fields of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and it was at this time that he made his seciion of the Coal Measures at the South Joggins, which, as has been truly said, is "a remarkable monument of his indus- try and powers of observation." It gives details of nearly the whole thickness of the coal formation of Nova Scotia, or 14,570 feet, including 76 beds of coal and 90 distinct Stigmaria under- chiys. Shortly after his visit to the Joggins, he wrote to a friend as follows : "I never before saw such a magnificent sec- tion as is there displayed. The rocks along the coast are laid bare for thirty miles, and every stratum can be touched and examined in nearly the whole distance. A considerable portion has a high angle of inclination, and the geological thickness thus brought to view is very great. I measured and registered every bed occurring in a horizontal distance of ten miles, taking the angle of dip all the way along." And again, in a letter to De la Beche written in the spring of lo44, referring to the Joggins section, he says : "Since my return from field-work, I have re- duced all the measurements and made out a vertical column. It occupies fifty-four pages of foolscap, closely written, and you will be astonished at the details in it" Lspe early in July, the summer and autumn were spent in making an examination of the coast, while Mr. Murray was at work in the Upper Province, examining the country be- tween Lakes Huron and Erie. The Gaspe peninsula had been selected by Mr. Logan as the field for his first operations, as it was thought that outlying patches of the Carboniferons might be found to exist there, and the government was especially anxious to ascertain whether there was any truth in the re- The following season, the work in Gaspe was continued, the Director being this time accompanied by Mr. Murray, who, in 1845, again carried cm the work, while Mr. Logan was engaged in explorations on the Upper Ottawa and Mattawan. Alto- gether, during the three seasons, 800 miles of the Gaspe coast were examined, and several sections made across the peninsula, from the St Lawrence to Bay Chaleur. No coal was found, but many geological facts of importance were accumulated, and a large amount of topographical work accomplished in what was previously almost a terra incognita. "Living the life of a savage, sleeping on the beach in a blanket sack with my feet to the fire, seldom taking my clothes off, eating salt pork and ship's biscuit occasionally tormented by mosquitoes, ' — such is the record which Logan has left us of his Gaspe life, the foretaste of what was to be endured for many years. From early dawn till dusk he paced or paddled, and yet 86 Sir William Edmond Logan. his work was not finished, for while his Indians — often his sole companions — smoked their pipes round the evening fire, he wrote his notes and plotted the day's measarements. To give details of his work during the many remaining years of his life would be to write a book ; and all that we can do here is to trace briefly what his movements were, at the same time calling special attention to those of his labors which have given him a world-wide fame. The summer of 1846 found him studying the copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior. These he showed to consist of two groups of strata, the " upper " and the " lower," the latter of which was seen at Thunder Bay to rest unconformably upon chloritic slates belonging to an older series, to which the name of Huronian was subsequently given. This older set of rocks, which he had already observed, in 1845, on Lake Temiscamang, he had ample opportunity of studying in 1848, when he de- voted several months to an examination of the Canadian coast and islands of Lake Huron, where the formation attains — as shown by Murray — a thickness of 18,000 feet. The seasons of 1847 and 1849, and a portion of that of 1848, were employed in studying the rocks of the Eastern Townships. Part of these were shown to be a prolongation of the Green Mountains of Yermont, and to consist of altered Silurian strata instead of "Primary strata,'' as was previously supposed by American geologists. In 1849 also, a short time was spent in an examination of the rocks about Bay St. Paul and Murray Bay, where coal had been reported to exist. The member for Saguenay County had previously made application to the Leg- islature for means to carry on boring operations ii» the vicinity of Bay St. Paul, but before his request was granted it was deemed advisable to obtain the opinion of the Provincial Geolo- gist. By this means the Government was saved a large and use- less expenditure of money. In 1850 an examination was made of the gold-bearing drift of the Chaudi^re, and the auriferous district found to extend over an area of between 3.000 and 4,000 square miles. Most of the year, however, was devoted to the collection of specimens for the London Exhibition of 1851, at which Mr. Logan acted as Juror. His visit to England at this time must have been for him an agreeable change. After a lapse of eight years to meet again with men like De la Beche, Murchison and Lyell, to hear from their own lips of the strides which science had been mak- ing, and in turn to tell of all that he had himself seen and done ; surely this was a treat that none but the scientific man can understand who has long been well-nigh deprived of the society of brother scientists. For him, however, there was little relaxa- tion from labor, for he toiled early and late in order that the Sir William Edmond Logan. 87 Canadian minerals might be displayed to the best advantage. And every one knows the result — the collection elicited uni- versal admiration, and Mr. Logan received a highly compli- mentary letter of thanks from the Prince Consort, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, his name having been proposed by Sir Roderick Murchison. Returning to Canada in August, before the close of the Ex- hibition, his explorations were renewed with undiminished vigor, and the remainder of the season devoted to an examina- tion of the rocks in the county of Beauharnois, where the Pots- dam sandstones had afforded those curious tracks of crustaceans to which Owen gave the name of Protichnites, and to a further study of the Chaudi^re gold region. During the winter he again visited England to attend to the distribution of a portion of the Exhibition collection which was to be left there, and to see to the return of the remainder. In 1852 an examination was made of a strip of country on the north side of the St Lawrence, extending from Montreal to Gape Tourmente below Quebec. The distribution of the fossil- iferous rocks was accurately determined, and several excursions were made into the hilly "metamorphic country" to the north. In his report on this season's operations, published in 1854, Logan for the first time designated the rocks comprising these hills as the "Laurentian series," substituting this for "metamorphic series," the name which he had previously employed, but which, as he says, is applicable to any series of rocks in an altered condition. The following season was spent among the Laurentian hills of Grenville and the adjoining townships, a field which proved so attractive that he afterward returned to it in 1856 and 1858. Nearly the whole of lb64 was occupied in making preparations for the Exhibition which was to take place at Paris in the fol- lowing year, and to which Mr. Logan was to go as one of the Canadian Commissioners. It was in the autumn of 1854 also, that a select committee was appointed by the Canadian Govern- ment to inquire into the best method of making the information acquired by the Geological Survey more readily accessible to the public. A lengthy report on the subject— indeed on the entire working of the Survey — was published, and the evidence which it contains is of a most flattering character, both as re- gards the Director and those associated with him. Then came the Paris Exhibition of 1855, at which the repre- sentation of the economic minerals of Canada was so complete and the arrangement so admirable that the collection attracted universal attention. This in itself Logan would have regarded as amply repaying him for his trouble ; but greater honor was in store for him. The Imperial Commission presented him with 88 Sir William Edmond Logan. the grand gold medal of honor, and the Emperor of the French made him a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Early in the following year (1856) he was knighted by Queen Victoria, and received from the Geological Society of London the WoUaston Palladium Medal in recognition of his distinguished labors in Long previous he had won the confidence and esteem fellow-countrymen in Canada, but this seemed to be a fitting time to testify to him their appreciation of his worth. Accordingly, on his return to Montreal, the citizens presented him with a testimonial on which were engraved the words : " In commemoration of his long and useful services as Pro- vincial Geologist in Canada, and especially his valuable services in connection with the Exhibition of all Nations in London in 1851, and in Paris in 1855, by which he not only obtained for himself higher honor and more extended reputation, but largely contributed in making known the natur; ' *■ ' ' "'""" rh\?£i The Natural History Society of Montreal presented him with an address, and made him an honorary member, while the mem- bers of the Canadian Institute of Toronto, of which Sir William was the first President, had his protrait painted and hung up in their hall. They also presented him with an address expres- sive of their affectionate esteem and respect. Sir William's reply to this was so full of feeling, and so highly characteristic, that we give a portion of it ; " Whatever distinctions," said he "may be bestowed on us at a distance, it is upon the respect, esteem, and confidence shown us at home, that our happiness and satisfaction must chiefly depend. I can assure you with sincerity that the honor conferred upon me, when you elected me the first President of the Institute, was one highly prized, al- though the circumstances of a distant domicile, and the intent pursuit of the investigations with which I am charged, rendered it extremely difiicult for me to be of much use in your proceed- ings It is a fortunate circumstance" for me that ray name should be connected with an act of grace on tlie part of Her Majesty, which serves to confirm your feeling in regard to the fact that as Canadians we enjoy a full share in the honors and privileges of British subjects. And I am proud to think that it was perhaps more because I was a Canadian, in whom the inhabitants of the Province had reposed some trust, that the honor which has been conferred upon me by Her Majesty was so easily obtained. That I am proud of the honors which have been bestowed upon me by the Emperor of France, in respect to my geological labors, and also by my brother geolo- gists in England, there can be no doubt. But I have striven for these honors because I have considered they would tend to pro- mote the confidence which the inhabitants of the Province have Sir William Edmond Logan. 89 reposed in me, in my endeavors to develop the truth in regard to the mineral resources of .the Province ; and in this work none could have been more interested in ray success than the mem- bers of this Institute. "* In August, 1857, the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science held its annual meeting in Montreal, and for several months previous Sir William was hard at work getting his museum in readiness to receive his brother geologists. Owing largely to his untiring exertions, the meeting was a most successful one. He himself read two interesting papers, one on the "Huronian and Laurentian Series of Canada," and another on the " Sub-division of the Laurentian Kocks of Canada " After the business of the Association was concluded, accom- panied by Professor Eamsay, who had come over to represent the Geological Society of London, and Professor Hall, he made a Greological tour through New York State. Eeturning from this trip, he spent the autumn months among the Laurentian Eocks of Grenville. Here too, as already mentioned, he continued to work during the season of 1858. For several years after this, his time was much taken up with the preparation and publication of the Geology of Canada and its accompanying Atlas, the former of which appeared in 1863, and the latter in 1865. Before these could be completed, how- ever, many facts had to be added to the stock already obtained, and besides a large amount of geological work among the Lau- rentian rocks of Grenville and the rocks of the Eastern Town- 'the country, as ±n 1862, Sir William was again present, in the capacity of Juror, at the London International Exhibition, and again dis- played a large and interesting collection of economic minerals. Another opportunity of seeing his scientific friends in Britain was also afforded him in 1864, when he went to London to superintend the engraving of the Atlas already mentioned. In 1866, a geological collection was again prepared for the Paris Exhibition of 1867, and Sir William worked so closely in getting up a geological map to accompany it that he is said to this side of the Atlantic," hard at work in the Pictou coal-field, and the results of this season's work constitute the last of his reports. In 1869, he resigned his appointment to Mr. Selwyn, the present Director of the Survey. The few remaining years of his life were occupied chiefly with a study of the rocks of the Eastern Townships and por- tions of New England: but, unfortunately, the conclusions at which he arrived concerning them were not published. * Can. Journal, New Series, vol. i, p. 404. 90 Sir William Edmond Logan. man has done as much as Sir Willis ogan to bring Canada before the notice of the outside world, and no man is more deserving of being held in remembrance by the people. Just as statesmen or generals have risen up at the moment of greatest need to frame laws or fight battles for their country, so Sir William appeared to reveal to us the hidden treasures of Nature, just at a time when Canada needed to know her wealth ' to appreciate her greatness ^ ■ ■' • n. ^ qualities, which, combined, eminently i He was strong in body, of active mind, industrious and dog- gedly persevering, painstaking, a lover of truth, generous, possessed of the keenest knowledge of human nature, sound in judgment, but always cautious in expressing an opinion. He belonged to that school of geologists — unfortunately not so numerously represented as it ought to be — whose motto is, " Facts, then theories," and was wholly above rasping down facts to make them fit theories. As a consequence, he rarely had to un-say what was once said ; and this is why he so thor- oughly gained the public confidence. So long as he felt that he was in the right, he held to his own views as tenaciously as did ever any true Scot ; but if shown to be in the wrong, he knew how to surrender gracefully. Tiiose who have clambered with him over our log-strewn Laurentiati hills know well what were his powers of endurance. He never seemed to tire, never found the days long enough. His field-books are models of carefulness, replete with details, and serve as an example of the painstaking way in which he did all his work. They were written in pencil, but regularly inked in at night, when the camp fire was often his only light. In addition to his field-book proper, he frequently kept a diary, and delighted to jot down little every-day occurrences, or sketch objects of interest— for the hand that "could so well wield a riences are often very amusing, and we cannot resist giving a specimen. He had been traveling through the forest for two months and had suddenly come upon the house of a settler called Barton, whose good wife was justly alarmed when Sir William and party entered her dwelling. Sir William describes his appearance, on this occasion, as follows : — " We are all pretty- looking figures. I fancy I cut the nearest resemblance to a scare- crow. What with hair matted with spruce gum, a beard three months old, red, with two patches of white on one side, a pair of cracked spectacles, a red flannel shirt, a waistcoat with patches on the left pocket, — where some sulphuric acid, which 1 carry in a small vial to try for the presence of lime in the rocks, had Sir WiUiam Edmond Logan. 91 leaked through, — a jacket of moleskin, shining with grease, and trowsers patched on one knee in four places, and with a burnt hole in the other: with beef boots — Canada boots, as thej are called — torn and roughened all over with scraping on the stumps and branches of trees, and patched on the legs with sundry pieces of leather of divers colors ; a broad-brimmed and round- topped hat, once white, but now no color, and battered into all shapes. With all these adornments, I am not surprised that Mrs. Barton, speaking of her children, and saying that here was "a little fellow "frightened of nothing on earth," should qualify the expression by saying, " but I think he's a little scared at you^ Sir.'' It was not alone in the field that Sir William was busy. His of&ce work was often most arduous, and during the earlier years of his directorship, in addition to preparing his annual report, he even kept the accounts, entering every item of expenditure, so that he could at any time show exactly how every penny of the public money placed at his disposal had been spent. ' He also tells us that, with his own hands, he made, at that time, four manuscript copies of the Annual Eeport of Progress, oil reaching more tha n one hundred printed pages— one copy the Government, c me for the Hon se of Assembly, one for 1 Legislative Council I, and one for the printer. His manner of li ving was simple as it was solitary. Like four brothers, he never married. nor does he seem to ht formed many intin late friendships. Still every one who kn loved him and respected him, and if you go the length and breadth of all the land, you will everywhere hear his praises, alike from rich and poor. He peculiarly possessed the power of inspiring others with his own enthusiasm ; not only those in his employ, but even un- educated farmers and backwoodsmen — men who, as a rule, are rather sceptical about the advantages to be derived from geology. Though possessed of private means, he spent little upon him- self; not that he was parsimonious, but he cared not for fashion or luxury. But with him Science never pleaded her needs in vain. The first grant of the Legislature, to make a geological survey of the Colonies, was £1,500 — an amount which. Sir William quaintly remarked, was but a drop of what would be required to float him over twenty-five degrees of longitude and ten of latitude. This was, of course, very soon spent, and not only this, but at the end of the second year the Survey was £800 in his debt, and he had no guarantee whatever that his money would be returned to him. Since then the Survey has been constantly indebted to him for books, instruments, and other aids, and the building on St. James street, now used for office purposes, was built by him, two years ago, and rented to the 92 Sir Willmm Edmoud Logan. Government for about half the amount which he could have obtained from other tenants. To Logan also, McGrill University owes much; for, in 1864, he founded and endowed the "Logan Gold Medal " for an honor coarse in geology and natural science, and, in 1871, gave $19,000, which, together with $1,000 given by his brother, "the late Mr. Hart Logan, forms the endowment • of the Geological Sur- vey, he has earned on explorations at his own expense, and, at the time of his death, arrangements had been nearly completed for putting down a bore-hole in the Eastern Townships, at a cost of $8,000 ; as he thought that this would enable him to prove the truth of his views with regard to the age of the metamor- phic rocks there Sir William was the first to give us any definite information about those wondrous old Laureniian rocks which form the backbone of our continent. He showed us that they were older than the Huronian, and that they consisted of a great series of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, which are divisible into two unconformable groups, with a combined thickness of not less than 30,000 feet.^ The great beds of limestone which he found in the lower series, the plumbago, the iron ores, the metallic sul- phurets, all seem to point to the existence of life in the Lau- rentian days; but the discovery of Eozoon Canadense m^'^e: conjecture gi ve place to certainty.' Now we know that the world of that far-off time was not a lifeless world. Life, whatever that may be, had been joined to matter. the first specimens of Eozoon were found by Dr. James Wilson, of Perth ; but at the time of their discovery were regarded merely as minerals. In 1858, however, Mr. J. McMullen, of the Geological Survey, discovered other specimens, the organic orig.n of which so 'struck Sir William that in the following year— four years before their true structure and affinities were determined by Dawson and Carpenter — he even exhibited them as fossils at the meeting of the American Association. In widely extending our knowledge of the early geological history of the earth, Sfr William has done a great work ; indeed this may be regarded as his greatest work. Its importance has everywhere been recognized, and the name Laurentian. which he ciiose for the rocks at the bottom of the geological scale in America, has crossed the Atlantic, and is now applied to the homotaxial rocks of Europe. Sir Eoderick Murchison, who dedicated the fourth edition of " Siluria " to Sir William Logan, even substituted Laurentian for " Fundamental Gneiss," the name which he had given to the rocks of the W^est Highlands of Scotland. " I at first," says Murchison, " termed them ' Funda- mental Gneiss,' and soon after, following my distinguished friena Sir WiUmm Edmond Logan. 93 Sir William Logan, 1 applied to them his terra, ' Laurentian,' and thus clearly distinguished them from the younger gneissic and micaceous crystalline rocks of the Central and P]astern Highlands, which were classed as metamorphosed Lower Silurian." Logan was not a voluminous writer, and during the later years of his life writing was a great effort to him. Occasional papers from his pen have appeared in the Transactions of the Oeological Society of London, in the Oinadian Naturah'si and the Canadian Journal, and some of these have already been referred to ; but most of what he has written is to be found in the Reports of Progress annually submitted to the Government, and in that invaluable book, the Geology of Canada, whicb is, to a large extent, a digest of what is contained in the reports published previous to 1863. He sometimes expressed himself quaintly, but everything he wrote is clear and exceedingly In addition to being a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Geological Societies of London and Paris, be was a member of numerous other learned societies both in Europe and America. At the time of his death, and for many years previous, he was one of our Vice-Presidents ; but though 'frequently solicited to accept the ofE.ce of President, he always declined, — not on ac- count of any lack of interest in the Society, but he felt his time was too fully occupied to permit of his successfully dis- charging the Presidential duties. We have already alluded to some of the medals which were awarded to him ; but it may be mentioned that altogether he was the recipient of more than twenty, including two from the Royal Society. And now, in concluding, let me say to you, my friends, if you would do honor to the memory of that noble old man, who fought so long, so bravely, for his country, for science, for you, then honor the cause for which he fought : strive with all your might to advance the interests of that cause, and to raise up a superstructure befitting the solid foundation which Logan has laid. He himself even hoped to build the superstructure ; but his anticipations were not realized, for life was not long enough, and we must take up the mantle which he has dropped. B. J. HARRINGTON. 94 W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. Art. VII. — On Recent Researches in Sound; by Wm. B. Taylor. [Continued from page 41.] IV. The communication of Professor Reynolds " On the Refrac- tion of Sound by the Atmosphere," is in two parts; the first of which considers " The effect of Wind upon Sound," and the second part "The effect of variations of Temperature." The experiments were all made in "a flat meadow of considerable extent ;" and the apparatus employed " consisted of an electri- cal bell mounted on a case containing a battery. The bell was placed horizontally on the top of the case, so that it could be heard equally well in all directions ; and when standing on the ground, the bell was one foot above the surface." An anemome- ter was also used to determine the velocity of the wind. (Pro- ceedings of the Royal Society ; republished in the L. E. D. Phil. Mag., for July, 1875, vol. 1, p. 67.) The experiments were made on four different days, the 6th, 9th, 10th, and 11th of March, 1874 ; and on the last two days the ground was covered with snow, which furnished an oppor- tunity of comparing the effect of diiferent surfaces on the range of Sound. Additional experiments were made on the 14th of March. [1.] '' On all occasions the effect of wind seems to be rather against distance than against distinctness. Sounds heard to windward [that is against the wind] are for the most part heard with their full distinctness; and there is only a comparatively small margin between that point at which the sound is percep- tibly diminished, and that at which it ceases to be audible." (Phil. Mag., p. 63.) [2.] The sound of the alarm-bell was always heard " farther with the wind than at right-angles to its direction ; [contrary to the old observation of De La Roche in 1816, — which was obviously an exceptional one ;] and when the wind was at all strong, the range with the wind was more than double that at right angles WUh the wind, over the grass the sound could be heard 140 yards, and over the snow 360 yards, with the head lifted or on the ground ; whereas at right-angies to the wind, on all occasions the range was extended by raising either the observer or the bell." (p. 68.) [3.] When the wind was light the sound beyond the distance of 20 yards, was much less audible at the ground than a few feet above it ; and when inaudible in every direction at standing height, the sound could be distinctly recovered by mounting a tree. The same result was obtained by raising the alarm-bell W. B. Taylor— Becent Researches in Sound. 95 upon a post 4 feet high ; which while materially increasing the range of the sound — even in the direction of the slight wind, in all other directions doubled the range. This is explained by Professor Reynolds, by the continual waste and destruction of the sound waves which pass along the rough surface of the ground or grass, causing the waves immediately above to diverge continually downward, to be in like manner absorbed ; the effect of which is. to gradually weaken the sound more and more, as the waves proceed; so that even "when there is no wind, the distant sounds which pass above us are more intense than those we hear." (p. 68.) [4.] Whatever therefore tends to gradually bend downward tbe sound rays will increase their sensible range. Professor Reynolds found by observations with the anemometer that the velocity of the wind increased from the ground upward ; (pp. 63, 64) and hence it must give greater rapidity to the upper i)or- tion of the sound waves in the direction in which it is blowing and cause their impulses to continually tip downward. " This was observed to be the case on all occasions. In the direction of the wind when it was strong, the sound could be heard as well with the head on the ground as when raised, even when in a hollow with the bell hidden from view by the slope of the ground ; and no advantage whatever was gained either by ascending to an elevation, or raising the bell." (p. 68.) [5.] " Elevation was found to affect the range of sound against the v/ind in a much more marked manner than at right- angles. Over the grass no sound could be heard with the head on the ground at 20 yanls from the bell, and at 30 yards it was lost with the head 3 feet from the ground, and its full intensity was lost when standing erect at 30 yards. At 70 yards when standing erect the sound was lost' at long intervals, and was only fainily heard even then ; but it became continuous again when the ear was raised 9 feet from the ground, and it reached its full intensity at an elevation of 12 feet." (p. 69.) The same results were obtained with snow on the ground, excepting tbat the sound was heard somewhat lower, being less dissipated or absorbed by the surface contact. At 160 yards the bell was inaudible— even at an elevation of 25 feet, and the sound was supposed to be hopelessly lost ; but at a further elevation of 33 feet from the ground, it was again heard ; while at 5 feet lower it was lost. At the proper elevation the sound appeared to be as well heard against the wind as with it, at the same distance. These last two observations very strikingly correspond with and confirm the observations of Henrv [3], and [4J. [6.] " The least raising of the bell was followed by a con- siderable intensifying of the sound ;" and while it could be heard only 70 yards when resting on the ground, (i. e., one foot 96 W. B. Taylor— Recent Rese^o'ches in Sound. high), when set on a post 5 feet high, it could be heard 160 yards, or more than twice the distance, — the sound-beams evidently rising faster at or near the ground, than they do higher up. (p.' 69.) "The intensity of the sound invariably seen] eel to waver, and as one approached the bell from the wind- ward side, the sound did not intensify uniformly or gradually, but by fits or jerks." This is supposed to be the result of the more or less curved sound rays crossing each other at a small angle and producing an ' interference." (p. 70.) A subsequent experiment was made on the 14th of March, during a strong west wind, its velocity at an elevation of 12 feet being 87 feet per second, at 8 feet, 8B per second, and at one foot from the ground (there being no snow on the grass) 17 feet per second. While the results as to varying range fully coniirmed the previous experiments, the raismg of the bell caused the sound to be heard even better against the wind than in the direction of the wind. (p. 71.) This curious circum- stance is explained by Professor Eeynolds as "due to the fact that the variation in the velocity of the air is much greater near the ground, than at a few feet above it;" and "when the bell is raised the rays of sound which proceed horizontally will be much less bent or turned up than those which go down to the ground ; and consequently after proceeding some distance these rays will meet or cross, and if the head be at this point they will both fall on the ear together, causing a sound of double intensity. It is this crossing of the rays also which for the most part causes the interference " just mentioned, (p. 71.) Professor Eeynolds concludes that "these experiments es- tablisii three things with regard to the transmission of sound : 1. That when there is no wind, sound proceeding over a rough surface is more intense above than below. 2. That as long as the velocity of the wind is greater above than below, sound is lifted up to windward and is not destroyed. 3. That under the same circumstances it is brought down to leeward, and hence its range extended at the surface of the ground. These experi- ments also show that there is less variation in the velocity oi the wind over a smooth surface than over a rough one. It seems to me that tiiese facts fully confirm the hypothesis pro- pounded by Prof. Stokes; that they place the action of wind beyond question ; and that they afford explanations of many of the anomalous cases that have been observed." (p. 71.) nd, Professor Reynolds shows that a perature between 32° and 70° adds approxii second to the velocity of sound," there mus upward flexure of the rays, whenever by rea W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. 97 erable increase of temperature in the lower strata of the air, the lower portion of the sound waves is projected in advance of the upper portion, (p. 71.) Atmospheric vapor also, though exercising but little direct influence on the velocity of sound, " nevertheless plays an important part in the phenomena under consideration ; for it gives to the air a much greater power of radiating and absorbing heat, and thus renders it much more susceptible of changes in the action of the sun It is a well-known fact that the temperature of the air diminishes as we proceed upward, and that it also contains less vapor. Hence it follows that, as a rule, the waves of sound must travel faster below than they do above, and thus be refracted or turned upward." (p. 72 ) The variation of temperature will be greatest in a quiet at- mosphere when the sun is shining. The report of Mr. Glaisher >'0n eight Balloon Ascents in 1862" showed that "The decline of temperature [upward] near the earth with a partially clear sky is nearly double that with a cloudy sky."* " During the night the variations are less than during the day. This reason- ing at once suggested an explanation of the welf-known fact that sounds are less intense during the day than at night. This is a matter of common observation, and has been the subject of scientific enquiry." (p. 73.) The opinion must here be haz- arded that this familiar phenomenon has first received its true and satisfactory explanation from Professor Reynolds. Assuming that for a few hundred feet upward, the diminu- tion of temperature on a clear summer day is 1° for each hun- dred feet, a horizontal sound-ray would be bent up in an arc having a radius of about 20 miles. From a clift' 235 feet high, a sound should be audible from 1^ to 2 miles on the sea, and the ray should then begin to rise above the observer's head. This is shown to accord very closely with the observation of Tyndall [6]. Professor Reynolds after quoting the observation at length, remarks : " Here we see that the very conditions which actually diminished the range of the sound were precisely those which would cause the greatest lifting of the waves. And it may be noticed that these facts were observed and re- corded bj Professor Tyndall with his mind altogether unbiased with any thought of establishing this hypothesis. He was look- ing for an explanation in quite another direction. Had it not been so he would probably have ascended the mast and thus * Mr. Grlaisher remarks : " Erom these results we may conclude that in a cloudy state of the sky, the decline of temperature is nearly uniform up to the decline of 1° in less than 100 feet, gradually decreasing as in the general law- indicated in the preceding section, till it requires 300 feet at the height of 5,000 feet, for a change of 1° of temperature." (Rep. Brit. Assoc, 1862, p. 462.) Am. Jour. Sci.— TntRD Series, Vol. XI, No. 63.— Feb., 1876. 98 W. B. Taylor — Recent Researches i found whether or not the sound was all the his head. On the worst day an ; extended the range nearly one qui p. 76.) The instructive result, brought into view by the foregoing summaries, is that the differences noticed are essentially those of interpretation, and not to any important extent, of observation : an illustration if any were needed, of the high and rare order of imaginative insight requisite to the successful investigation of the more recondite operations of natural law. The differing actions of acoustic reflection and acoustic refraction suggested by the ingenious hypotheses of Humboldt and of Stokes, and es- poused respectively by Tyndall and Henry, are probably both operative but their relative importance has yet to be established. It is certain, as already indicated, that some of the phenomena observed lie quite beyond the reach of the acoustic cloud hypothesis. A particularly interesting case which is claimed with equal confidence for either theory, is the remarkable observation of General Duane, that at Portland, Maine, the steam whistle on Cape Elizabeth, nine miles distant, " can always be distinctly heard " with " the wind blowing a gale directly toward the whistle" or against the sound. (L. H. Rep., p. 100.) At Port- land Head, about midway between this fog-whistle and the point of observation is another signal, — a Daboll trumpet. While both these signals are better heard with an adverse wind ("a heavy northeast snow storm") than at other times, yet " as the wind increases in force, the sound of the nearer instrument — the trumpet — diminishes, but the whistle becomes more distincC (Rep., p. 92.) The abnormal influence of the wind in reversing the order of these two signals is not the least surprising feature of the general phenomenon. Professor Tyndall believes that this curious observation only " proves the snow -laden air from the northeast to be a highly homogeneous medium ;" (Sound, Preface, p. 19,) the ing air at other times being acoustically less transparent. Professor Henry supposes "that during the continuance of the storm, while the wind was blowing from the northeast at the surface, there was a current of equal or greater intensity blowing in an opposite direction above, by which the sound was carried in direct opposition to the direction of the surface current;" (Rep., p. 92)— somewhat in the nature of a vertical cyclone. He adds : "The existence of such an upper current is in accordance with the hypothesis of the character of a north- east sto?-m, which sometimes rages for several days at a given W. B Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. 99 point on the coast without being felt more than a few miles in the interior, the air continuously flowing in below and going out above. Indeed in such cases a break in the lower clouds reveals the fact of the existence above of a rapid current in the opposite direction." (p. 92.) Professor Henry's attention had been directed to this point as early as 1865, by discovering that a signal was audible against the wind at the mast-head of a vessel, after ceasing to be audi- ble on deck: Obs. [4]. "This remarkable fact at first sug- gested the idea that sound was more readily conveyed by the upper current of air than the lower, and this appeared to be in accordance with the following statement of Captain Keeney, who is commander of one of the light-house vessels, and has been for a long time on the banks of Newfoundland in the occupation of fishing : ' When the fishermen in the morning hear the sound of the surf to leeward, or from a point toward which the wind is blowing, they take this as an infidlible indi- cation that in the course of frorn one to five hours the wind will change to the opposite direction from which it is blowing at the time.' The same statement was made to me by the intelligent keeper of the fbg-sigual at Block Island. In these cases it would appear that the wind had already changed direction above, and was thus transmitting the sound in an opposite direction to that of the wind at the surface of the earth." (Kep., p. 92.) The full significance of this idea ho ' esis of Professor i considered. This appeared ved efl'e ^ , I the direction of Professor Tyndall thus comments on the rival hypothesis of Professor Henry: "In the higher regions of the atmosphere he places an ideal wind, blowing in a direction opposed to the real one, which always accompanies the latter, and which more than neutralizes its action. In speculating thus he bases himself on the reasoning of Professor Stokes, according to which a sound- wave moving against the wind is tilted upward. The upper and opposing wind is invented for the purpose of tilting again the already lifted sound-wave downward." (Pref. to Sound, pp. 19, 20.) The word " invented " is scarcely the most appropriate term for an hypothesis derived from such patient research and care- the case considered, the reversed culation is rendered so probable bv presented, it is proper to remark that this condition is not at all essential to the refraction doctrine. The hypothesis of Professor Stokes by no means assumes that -a 100 W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. sound-wave moving against the wind is tilted upward." (Rep. Brit. Assoc, 1857, pp. 22, 23, of Abstracts.) An opposing wind exercises no sensible influence on either the velocity or the range of sound, nor (if uniform) on the direction of sound. Ordinarily indeed, a wind (which may be likened to an aerial river) is retarded at the earth precisely as the current of a stream is, over its bed.* When, however, the mouth of the aerial chimney of ascent is low, it may very well happen that the lower current of air (excepting immediately at the surface of the earth) is considerably swifter than the successive layers of wind above it ; and in such a case the effect of the opposing wind will be not to tilt upward the sound-beam, but to tilt it downward. In like manner a "favoring" wind, if more slug- gish above, will tilt the sound-beam upward, and thus prove unfavorable to its audibility. In short, the postulate required for acoustic refraction is simply that there shall be a difference of amount between the upper and the lower currents of wind. And as this condition is certainly not an unusual one, we have here apparently a true and satisfactory account of the seeming anomalies of sound with reference to the influence of the wind. But if the natural tendency of a mere dimmution of velocity in the upper strata of an adverse wind is thus to bend an ad- vancing sound downward, " a precisely similar effect " as Pro- fessor Henry has well remarked, "will be the result but per- haps in a considerably greater degree, in case an upper current is moving in an opposite direction to the lower, when the latter is adverse to the sound." (Rep., p. 107.) In September, 1874, when a signal near Sandy Hook, N. J., was observed to be audi- ble at a greater distance against the afternoon sea-breeze than with it, Professor Henry ascertained by the employment of small toy balloons, that the upper current was opposed to the lower one, and in the direction of the maximum sound i Obs [11.] He was enabled thus to demonstrate experimentally the reality of the "ideal wind " which had been so con: jepted before, from other conspiring i 3 confidently The critical commentary above cited, which postulates for this doctrine of acoustic refraction the super-position of "an ideal wind blowing in a direction opposite to the real one," as a condition " which more than neutralizes its action," quite fails to apprehend its true import. No action analogous to "neu- tralization " is assumed by the doctrine. There is no solution * Professor Henry detei irmined by experiment in : six miles per hour, that th( TV^. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. 101 between opposit of movement in each success! it is wholly improbable that the sound-beam which reaches the observers ear, ever passes high enough to approach the upper " ideal wind," nothing is neutralized. Obedient to the law of instantaneous resultants, the beam of acoustic impulse presses on ever at right angles to the wave-surface which is conditioned by compounded factors. "^ As wide of the mark is the supposition that the upper and opposing " ideal wind " is " for the purpose of tilting again the already lifted sound-wave, downward." As has been just con- tended, the one wind is as incapable of depressing the sound- wave, as the other is of lifting it. The misconception culminates in the objection that " Profes- sor Henry does not explain how the sound-wave re-crosses the hostile lower current, nor does he give any definite notion of the conditions under which it can be shown that it will reach the observer." (Loc, cit, p. 20.) There is no " hostile lower current," since as above pointed out, an opposite wind may be just as favorable to the propagation of sound, To give, however, a the observer without crossina: currents crrams are submitted. ,, the ac< 3ompanying dia- 1 i \ I j r MI7//JLL 1 1^ W-^ Fig. 1 ex in depressir _ o the point of observation ; the wind blowing from W. to A. As the spheroidal wave-faces become more pressed forward above by the freer wind (assuming it to be retarded at the sur- face by friction), and as the direction of the acoustic beam is constantly normal to the successive aerial surfaces of impact, it follows that very minute differences of concenfricity in the suc- cessive waves, will by constant accumulation gradually bend the line of dynamic effect downward, as shown in the sketch on a very exaggerated scale. Of the sound rays below the line represented, some will by reflection from the sea, reach the ob- server's ear and thus increase the sound. Fig. 2 represents the ordinary effect of an opposing wind here blowing from E. to W. The wave faces being more resisted 102 W. B. Taylor— Recent Researches in Sound. above by the freer contrary wind (assuming as before a surface retardation), the sound-beams are curved upward, and the low- est ray that can reach the distance of the observer at 7^^,' • • • (^^) which attains a maximum as before when - — co . When the attracted body is large, the attraction will depend more nearly upon the linear density _ ^ iW'^i which is a maximum when - h 1-65 106 H. A, Rowland— Studies on Magnetic Distribution. This last result is useful in preparing magnets for determin- ing the intensity of the earth's magnetism, and shows that the magnets should be made short, thick, and hard for the best effect* But for all ordinary purposes the results for the second and third cases seem most important, and lead to nearly the same result ; and taking the mean we find for the maximum magnet 1=}-:^ (24) d p We see from all our results that the ratio of the length of a magnet to its diameter should vary inversely as the constant ;). This constant increases with the hardness of the steel, and hence the harder the steel the shorter we can make our mag- nets. It would seem from this that the temper of a steel magnet should not be drawn at all, but the hardest steel used, or at least that in which p was greatest. The only disadvan- tage in using very hard steel seems to be the difficulty in imparting the magnetism at first, and this may have led to the practice of drawing the temper; but now when we have such powerful electromagnets, it seems as if magnets might be made shorter, thicker and harder, than is the custom. With the rel- ative dimensions of magnets now used, however, hardening might be of little value. We can also see from all these facts, that if we make a com- pound magnet of hardened steel plates there will be an advan- tage in placing more of them together, thus making a thicker magnet than when they are softer. We also observe that as we pile them up the distribution changes in just the way indi- cated by M. Jamin, the curve becoming less and less steep. Substituting in the formula the value of p which we have found for Stub's steel not hardened, but still so hard as to rapidly dull a file, we find the best ratio of length to diameter to be 33-8, and for the same steel hardened about 17, though this last is only a rough approximation. This gives what M. Jamin has called the normal magnet. The ratio should be less for a U-magnet than for a straight one. For all magnets of the same kind of steel in which the ratio of length to diameter is constant the relative distribution is the same; and this is not only true for our approximate for- mula, but would be found so for the exact one. Thus for the " normal magnet'' the distribution becomes where C is a constant, and x is measured from the center. The distribution will then be as follows : * Weber recommends square bars eight times as long as they are broad, and tempered very hard. (Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. ii, p. 86.) H. A. Rowland — Studies on Magnetic Distrihutio This distribution is not the same as that given by M. Jamin ; but as his method is so defective, and his " normal magnet" so indefinite, the agreement is sufficiently near. The surface-density at anv point of a maiinet is which, for the same kind of steel, is dependent only on -and-v Hence in two similar magnets the surface-density is the same at similar points, the linear density is proportional to the linear dimensions, the surface integral of magnetic induction over half the magnet or across the section is proportional to the irface dir j of the magnets, and the magnetic mc the magnets. The forces at similar with regard to the two magnets will then be the ! these remarks apply to soft iron under induction providing the inducing force is the same, and hence include Sir William Thomson's well-known law with regard to similar electromag- nets ; and they are accurately true notwithstanding the approximate nature of the formula from which they have here been deduced. Our theory gives us the means of determining what eflfect the boring of a hole through the center of a magnet would have. In this case R' is not much affected, but R is increased. Where the magnet is used merely to affect a compass-needle, we should then see that the hole through the center has little eflect where the magnet is short and thick ; but where it is long, the attrac- tion oti the com pass- needle is much diminished. Where the mag- net is of the U-form, and is to be used for sustaining weights, the practice is detrimental, and the sustaining -power is diminished 108 E. L. Berthoud—McClellan Mountain, Colorado. as the sectional area of the magn't. The ,- of where the hole through the center is I advantage, is that of tbe deflecting magnets for determining tbe intensity of the earth's magnetism, which may be thus made lighter withoat much diminishing their magnetic moment. In conclusion, let me express my regret at the imperfection of the theory given in this paper; for although the equations are more general than any yet given, yet still the}/ rest upon two quite incorrect hypotheses; and so, although we have found these formulas of great use in pursuing our studies on magnetic distribution, yet much remains to be done. A nearer approximation to the true distribution could readily be obtained, but tbe results would, without doubt, be very complicated and would not repay us for the trouble. In this paper, as well as in all the others which I have pub- lished on magnetic subjects, my object has been not only to bring forth new results, but also to illustrate Faraday's method of lines of magnetic force and to show how readily calculations may be made on this system. For this reason many points have been developed at. greater length than would otherwise be desirable. Art. IX.— On rifts of L-e in the rocks near the summit of M McCiellan, Colorado] and on the different Limits of Vegetation on adjoining summits in the Territory; hy Edward L. BeethoUD- The silver mines of Argentine District, a mining center about eight miles southwest from Georgetown, are located on the north slope of a high peak named McCiellan Mountain, which forms a very prominent point of the main central range, and immedi- ately facing a precipice fully 1500 feet high, the majestic mass of G-ray's Peak ; while l"^ miles south is Argentine Pass, 13,100 feet in height. This mountain, 13,430 feet* above the sea, is intereected in a northeast and southwest direction by a system of mineral veins, containing silver in large quantity with a little gold. The veins seem generally to be nearly vertical, and occur at elevations varying from 12,300 feet to 13,400 feet. Three of them have been extensively mined, and two, the International and Belmont, have been developed and worked since 1867-68 with success, and with fair paying results; but with probably at a greater average cost per ton of mineral mined than any "other similar mines in Northern Colorado. The Centennial Lode, the third mine examined, is now being well developed by its owners, who * Vide Gardner, in Hayden'a Report, 1873-14 E.' L. Berthoud—McCMlaii Mountain, Colorado. 109 are workinginto the vein horizontally by excavating a drift. The ores found in these mines are galena rich in silver, decomposed quartz and honey-combed quartz, with sulphurets of silver, and some decomposed iron pyrites and a little carbonate of lead, with occasional small patches of sphalenite. I have been thus particidar in the description of these mines, merely to give a good general idea of their value and location. In a personal and critical examination of them, during a recent visit to the region, a peculiar feature was observed which excited much surprise. The discovery-drift of the Centennial Lode runs into Mc- Clellan Mountain at an altitude above 18,100 feet, on a course southwest, at about 80 feet from the entrance of the tunnel. Intercalated in the vein, I found three or four well defined veins of solid ice, parallel with thebeddingof the rock, and filling all its thinner side cracks and fissures ; in fact, after further exam- ination I found that the frozen stratum, and the congealed, hard earth, rock and gravel, began only a few feet below the accumu- lated rock and debris of the mountain slope, and continued as far as the excavation reached, some forty feet in depth. From the Centennial Lode I went westward about 300 feet, and examined the drift that has been excavated into the moun- tain some 500 feet, upon the vein of the International Lode. Here there is repeated the same frozen substratum and the same rift or veins of ice in the country rock and in the vein. I went into the tunnel about 100 feet and found this glacial con- dition still existed ; and the owner of the mine assured me that the ice and frozen rock continued all the way to the end of the tunnel and caused a i:ood deal of extra expense in mining The course of the " International Lode" is southwest, and its drift is about 50 feet in vertical elevation above the drift of the Centennial Lode. The next '' Lode" examined was the Belmont Lode, west and nearly parallel to the International. This mine is exploited by a system of horizontal galleries one above the other to the sum- mit of the mountain, at 13,400 feet elevation. In the lower gal- leries the same frozen icy condition prevails as at the first two veins. But the summit drift, which was at the date of ray visit about 60 feet long, does not show veins of ice in the wall-rock of the veins ; this is probably due not only to the greater narrow- ness of the summit, here scarcely 200 feet where pierced by the tunnel, but also to the influence of wind and sun upon its western seamed and riven surface, and to its more perfect drainage and exposure. This is certainly a singular phenomenon, when we consider that across the narrow valley north of McClellan Mt, not over 110 E. L. Berthoud—McChllan Mountain, Colorado. three-fourths of a mile distant and upon another high peak, the limit of tree growth exceeds 12,400 feet elevation on the south slope of that peak. Here can be seen Pinus aristaia, some of the trees two feet in diameter and thirty feet high that retain their hold, and slowly increase in size, thus maintaining themselves in respectable numbers in spite of furious gales of snow and wind, and an extreme Arctic cold. In Miscellaneous Publications, No. 1, U. S. Geological Sur- vey of the Territories, which was published last year, under the direction of Prof. F. V. Hayden, the line of tree growth is given by Mr. J. T. Gardner in his report, as from 11,000 feet to 11,900 feet, between latitudes 39° and 40°. We believe this to be cor- rect, and a fair general average. In Argentine District, which comprises McClellan Mountain, we have a very notable depart- ure from this limit of from 500 to 1400 feet 'in elevation, and also about 1300 feet above timber line on Gray's Peak, three to four miles southwest, as given by Mr. Gardner. At the Equator and in the Torrid zone the limit of the growth of Pines is gener- ally placed at 12,800 feet above the sea ; how is it that, in lat. 39° 33' K, the limit of the growth of Pines has receded only 400 feet? In McClellan Mountain and in Argentine District there are two antagonistic phenomena in immediate proximity ; on one side of the valley, a mountain slope facing north east, well grassed, totally devoid of shrubs and trees, where soil and rocky debris are underlain by a perpetual icy coat of hundreds of feet in depth, supporting on its surface a growth of plants strictly Alpine and Arctic, and abounding with Ptarmigan, Lagopm leucurus, and the tailless, earless marmot ; and where on the 2d October, 1876, I found the following plants yet in bloom; Sedum stenopetahm, Poi^idilla norvegica, P.fruticosa, ^Sibbaldia procumbens. Astragalus alpitms, Silene ucatdis, Draba aurea, Pkleam alpinum, Primula Parry i, Gentiana, I/eucha-a, Cast die la pallida, Ranunculus invalis, Peaicularis, Cardamine and Crepis, while less than half mile dis- tant, on the opposite slope of the vale, Pimis aristata of large size and a profuse growth of birches, willows, grasses and Arbutus, with flowing springs and small ponds, diversify its southwestern slope. It has been suggested* that the frozen soil and rock of some mines examined by him, northwest from McClellan Mountain, on the west slope, have been thus left ice bound since the Glacial period ; and that they thus retain their former ice-bound condi- tion, from the excessive altitude of the mines there explored. This may be the case, but it seems doubtful. There are in Col- orado many mines at altitudes very nearly as high as the highest on McClellan Mountain, yet none have been exploited to the * R. Weiaer, in this Journal, III, viii, 477, 1874. F. E. Nipher— New form of Lantern Galvanometer. Ill depth of from 100 to 500 feet in solid frozen soil and ice ribs. I am inclined to believe that the glacial condition of McClellan Mountain is due to local causes. Prominent among these would be the loose nature of the soil and deep rockj debris of the moun- tain, and the slow percolation of water exposed to excessive evaporation that is promoted and quickened bj continued gales from the north and northwest that strike against the precipitous face of the mountain range in that direction. The opposite slope, on the contrary, which shows the abnormally high timber line, faces a Pass (Argentine Pass) 13,100 feet in height, which gives a way perfectly unobstructed for south-southwest winds. These prevail frequently in winter and spring, and are invariably tem- perate or even warm, and thus to their influence may be due the milder and more propitious character of this locality. In Col- orado Territory it has been remarked that in our mountains, even in January, a southwest wind is invariably genial and warm ; in two hours I have known a southwest wind to raise the thermom- eter from 13° below zero to 47^ above. This abrupt change, how- ever, is disastrous to tree growth, and destroys the quaking Asp, Cedar, and even Pines in more exposed locahties; while the Cherry, Box Elder and the bitter Cottonwood {Popuhis angulatd) have perished in the ensuing spring in our lower valleys and on the foot-hills. I have presented this subject in order to secure for it further elucidation and discussion. The facts are of no little interest, since they conflict with accepted views as to the limits of growth of plant, and the influence of altitude on climate. Art. X. — On a New Form of Lantern Galvanometer; by Francis E. Nipher, Professor of Physics in Washington University.* In the September number of this Journal, Prof. Barker has described a lantern galvanometer, which appears to possess many advantages over any heretofore described, and which is evidently a valuable addition to the apparatus of the public While meditating the construction of this instrument, the galvanometer now to be described was devised. A vertical section is shown in Fig. 1. A square box (Y, Y), open at the top and bottom, is pierced on opposite sides to admit the wooden rods (6). To the inner extremities of these rods are attached coils (R), of covered cop- * Read before the St. Louis Academy of Science, Oct 18, 1875, -New form of Lantern ( L cylinders of wood (a).* Wooden VQ with gentle friction, bear a wire ;vstera of needles is suspended by upper needle is midway between this age of the lower needle V ^{h)i the centers of the two coils. The lower needle scale (s) photographed on glass, beneath which is t condensing lens of the vertical lantern. The needles are ordi- nary sewing needles, and are each 1-5 inches in length. f Each coil is composed of 34 7 meters of wire, the resistance of which is 0-444 ohms. Each coil should have the same number of wind- ings, and the same resistance. This is easily effected by care in winding. By sliding the rods (b) in or out, the distance between the coils may be varied from 2 cm. to 10 cm., the ig in all cases perfectly distinct. In Ijusted to currents of any strength, ve to regulate the distances. On the outside of the box are six plates of brass, whose form and arrangement are shown in , fig. 2. The extremities of the coils are connected with the four plates A, B, C, D. This con- nection may be made by means of binding-^screws on the inside Ti n n \tv ^^ *^^ ^o^' "^ ^^'^^°^^ ^^^^ ^'^^ ""ifi / \ h^- "^ coils may be replaced with ease H^ S Ir bX rJC_ by others of greater or less re- sistance. The plates are put m metallic contact by means of * For Duboscq's lantern, the coils must be placed lower than here represented. F. E. Nipher — New Jorm of Lantern Galvanometer. 113 brass plugs, inserted at a. J, c, o?, e, ^, A, ^. Putting plugs at h and e, and connecting the poles of a galvanic cup at the binding- screws A and C, and the current runs successively through the tv'O coils R, each causing deflection in the same direction. Let R represent the resistance of one coil of the galvanometer, then the resistance of the galvanometer will be 2R This arrange- ment is used in working with ordinary galvanic currents. If instead of the former connections, plugs be put at a, c?, g, and h, the wires from the source of electricity being connected at E and F, then the galvanometer resistance becomes ^R. This arrangement is to be used with circuits of small such as therm o-currents. For this kind of work the i is thoroughly adapted. This instrument can also be used as a differential galvanome- ter. To do this, put the positive pole of the battery at E. Plug a and c. Divide the negative wire into two equal branches which are to be connected at B and D. The circuit being thus closed, the needle evidently remains at zero. Introducing any wire the resistance of which is to be determined, into one branch, bring the needle to zero agam by introducing known resistances into the other, and the unknown resistance is readily determined. In measuring fractions of an ohm, a rheochord is, all things considered, the best. The contacts are good, and an audience obtains a better idea of what is meant by electrical resistance than when a resistance box alone is used. Using platinum wire weighing 7-37 grams per meter, the resistance of which is one ohm to 192-9 cm. of wire (which is 9645 cm. on tbe instrument scale), and thousandths of an ohm can be measured direct. If ground connections are made the negative pole of the battery is sent to ground direct, and the branches of the current from B and D are sent to ground through the unknown resis- tance and the resistance box respectively. Shunts may be introduced into either of the half circuits. This may be done by introducing coils of resistance ^R or ^V-K, between the binding screws A, B or C, D. These wires may also be wound upon metallic plugs, which have been split lengthwise, the parts being insulated and each being connected with one extremity of the wire. Permanent shunts may be introduced by connecting one extremity with plates A or D, the other extremity being attached to an insulated plate, to be put in contact with B or C by means of a solid metallic plug. These shunts are used in Latimer Clark's differential galvanom- eter, and their use in measuring resistance is too well known to need further explanation. The advantages possessed by this galvanometer are : Am. .Joiik. 8oi.— Thibt) Series, Vol. XI, No. 63.— Feb., 1876. 114 *S: p. Sadtler— Occurrence of Tartronic Acid. 1. It is easily adjusted to any vertical lantern, from which it can be removed in a moment if desired. 2. The distance between the deflecting coils being readily varied, it can be adjusted to currents of various intensity. 3 The resistance of the galvanometer is quickly varied from one-half, to twice the resistance of one of the galvanometer ■s when desire< I differential galvanom- eter and used in measuring resistance. 6. It can be constructed in any work-shop at a very small expense. St. Louis, Oct. 25, 18T5. Art. XI. — On a new occurrence of Tartronic Acid, with some remarks on the Molecular Structure of Glyceric Acid ; by Sam- uel P. Sadtler. (Read before the American Philosophical Society, September ]7, 1875.) Ln the Propyl series, nine normally formed acids are possi- ble, besides several isomeric unsymmetrically formed ones. They are:— bH. (5h,' 6n, CO.OH 60.OH 6o.( II. CaHeO, C3HeO, cVh CH..OH 6H.0H c'h.oh (JH.( i0.0H 60.0H bo.. the acids considered as having the molec- .rbacetoxylic acid ; VII, malonic acid ; VIII, IX, mesoxalic acid. S. p. ^Sadder — Occurrence of Tartronic Acid. 115 In one or two of these cases, however, there is still a dijffer- ence of opinion as to whether the acid named is the one possess- ing the normal molecular structure given above, or is only an isomer of it, having its carbon atoms differently united. Nota- bly with glyceric acid is this yet an open question. Some results lately obtained in the course of a study of this acid appear to me to be of value for the solution of this question. The other view of the molecular structure of glyceric acid makes it unsymmetrical, two of the carbon atoms being doubly united. The formula given is As will be seen, this formula does not contain the carboxyl group, hitherto supposed to be the inevitable characteristic of an organic acid. The author of this theory is Prof. Wislicenus, of Wiirzburg, and the following are the reasons given in sup- port of it. If lactic acid be acted upon with hydrogen iodide, a iodo-propionic acid is formed, according to the following 6h.0H+HI=CH.I -fH.OH C.OOH CO. OH. This when heated to 150° with strong HI is changed into propionic acid. If, on the other hand, glyceric acid be acted upon with hydrogen iodide, p iodo-propionic acid is formed. If this had the formula CHJ 6h, silver oxide, it would pass into < I not, however, do this, but a new ictic acid is formed — hydracrylic- That the molecular structure of this acid is essentially dif- ferent from that of ethylene lactic acid is proved by the oxy- dation products of the two. Ethylene lactic acid yields malonic acid, while hydracrylic does not'yield a trace of this, breaking up into glj^colic and oxalic acids and carbonic dioxide. More- over, hydracrylic acid on heating yields acrylic acid, a deriva- tive of allyl alcohol, instead of the lactid yielded by the lactic acids. 116 S. P. Sadtler— Occurrence of Tartronic Acid. Prof. Wislicenus, however, frankly gives one experiment made by himself, the result of which tends the other way. He reduced the P iodo-propionic acid by sodium amalgam and obtained what appeared to be the normal propionic acid, show- ing the regular molecular structure. In favor, moreover, of the normal structure for the molecule of glyceric acid is the formation of pyruvic or pyroracemic acid. The structure of this pyruvic acid is known from the fact that acted upon by nascent hydrogen it gives normal lactic A strong additional argument would be had, if we could show a connection between glyceric acid, CO.OH CH.OH CO.OH. lie acid had not been formed from glyceric an indirect way, by the spontaneous decom- .•tartaric acid, according to the following OH CO.OH with the oxidation by means of potassic permanganate a peculiar phenomenon was noticed which deserves mention. I have stated that the oxidation took place slowly ; the product was not an acid, so that the manganic oxide formed was precipitated : but, further, the substance oxidized was insoluble in water, so that the manganic oxide, being produced in contact with the 136 L Remsen and M S. Southworth oji the action of faces of the insoluble crystals, was deposited in even layere upon them, forming thus a complete envelope, and giving a genuine pseudomorph. I was at first deceived by this strange pseudomorph, believing it to be the product of the oxidation. It was insoluble in water, and appeared to be insoluble in alcohol. I found, however, afterward, that the alcohol dissolved the central portions of the pseudomorphs leaving the envelopes unchanged in form. 5, The substance was heated loith water at 150° in a seaied tube. At this temperature decomposition took place, bat not at a lower temperature. The products of the reaction were alcohol, and a solid, white crystalline substance which conducted itself iu some respects like succinic acid. The alcohol was detected by placing the whole product in a flask and distilling The experiments which have thus been described do not suffice to enable us to judge positively in regard to the structure of the substance under investigation. I have stated above the view held by Wislicenus, and also my objections to this view. It remains yet to be decided whether my objections are well founded, and this can be done only by the aid of new experi- One of the most remarkable examples of so-called non- saturated compounds is carbon monoxide. If we accept the hypothesis of constant valence, the compound CO must possess free affinities, or, as some chemists believe, the two affinities of the carbon-atom, which are not saturated by the oxygen atom, must exercise an influence upon each other. We can not ex- plain this case by assuming that two carbon-atoms are joined together by two affinities each, for we know that the formula of carbon monoxide is CO, and not C^O^ or a higher multiple, and, accepting this formula, it is plain that we cannot assume a double union of carbon atoms in the compound. If, on the other hand, we accept the hypothesis of variable valence, believing that the valence of an element depends upon circumstances, we shall look in vain for circumstances which, in the one case, can cause the bivalence, in the other the ^>eratur( linly does not < Ozone on Carbon Monoxide. 137 of carbon is quadrivalent toward oxygen at the ordinary tem- perature and under ordinary conditions. How otherwise shall we explain the formation of carbon dioxide in the processes of decay, fermentation, etc. ? But the atom of carbon is just as positively quadrivalent at high temperatures. The comparative ease with which carbon monoxide takes up chlorine appears to prove that it possesses free affinities. But if we accept this as a proof of the existence of free affinities in carbon monoxide, we have still better grounds for believing that free affinities are preset)t in ethylene, for this gas combines with chlorine much more readily than carbon monoxide does. Still the view is commonly held that in ethylene the two carbon-atoms of the molecule are united by the mutual action of two affinities of each atom. These considerations show that the nature of carbon monox- ide is, as yet, but very unsatisfactorily understood. The first question which suggests itself is this : How far are we justified in considering carbon monoxide as a body possessing free affin- ities? If we attempt to answer this question entirely without preju- dice, we see that the principal experiment which is supposed to prove the existence of free affinities in carbon monoxide is the above mentioned experiment with chlorine. Oxygen does not combine with carbon monoxide at the ordinary temperature. This is readily understood, for, in order that the carbon monox- ide and oxygen may combine by direct contact of the two sub- stances, the oxygen-molecule must first be decomposed into its ■ atoms. An ' ' ' ' ■ • - • tion has been described by E. Ludwig,* who shows that carbon monoxide is oxidized by chromic acid at the oi'dinary tempera- ture forming carbon dioxide. In this case carbon monoxide is active enough to separate one atom of oxygen from chromic acid and to employ it for the formation of carbon dioxide. We have occupied ourselves with an experiment similar to that described by Ludwig, and have obtained a different and unexpected result. It appeared to us to be of interest to know whether, at the ordinary temperature, ozone has the power to transform carbon monoxide into the higher oxide. According to the views which are commonly held concerning the na- ture of the substances experimented upon, the transformation mentioned could be predicted with a tolerable degree of cer- tainty. Particularly is this the case, if we consider the result of Ludwig's experiment, for usually ozone gives up its extra atom of oxygen with still greater readiness 'than chromic acid does. There is indeed no substance in the whole field of chemistry which furnishes us with a better means for obtaining 138 1. Remsen and M. & SouthworiJi— Action of Ozone, etc. a free atom of oxygen than ozone. If then we bring in con- tact with ozone a'substance, which in turn is capable of taking up an atom of oxygen without itself undergoing change; which, indeed, possepses an attraction for oxygen, we are cer- tainly justified in expecting to see the two substances act upon each other. But the experiment gave the unexpected result that ozone does not act upon carbon monoxide. Two very careful experiments were performed. Pure carbon monoxide free of dioxide was first collected in a gasometer. This was then conducted from one side through three cylinders containing potassic hydroxide and lime-water into a flask. From the other side a current of oxygen was conducted through potassic hydroxide and lime-water, and then through a tube, in which the oxygen was converted into ozone, into the same flask. This flask was provided with a stopper having three holes. From the third hole a tube led to a cylinder containing lime-water; and this cylinder was connected with a final cylinder containing potassic hydroxide. Let us see what pur- poses the different parts of the somewhat complicated apparatus served. In the first place, the carbon monoxide was caused to pass through potassic hydroxide and lime-water in order to absorb every trace of carbon dioxide which might be present. The oxygen was treated similarly for a similar purpose. The ozone generator employed was that described by Wright* for use with the Holtz electrical machine, the best conditions being retained throughout the experiment for the working of the apparatus. The pure carbon monoxide and the ozonized oxy- gen were then caused to meet in the final flask, the inside of which was moist, as, for some unknown reason, ozone does not exhibit its oxidizing properties as well when dry as when moist The mixture of the two gases, and any carbon dioxide which might have been formed, were then passed together into lime-water, contained in a cylinder, the lime-water being pro- tected from the influence of the carbon dioxide of the air by the potassic hydroxide contained in the last cylinder. Slow currents of carbon monoxide and oxygen were now passed through the apparatus, and, although the action was continued for a long time, not a trace of a precipitate could be detected in the last cylinder, containing lime-water. The strength of the gas-currents was frequently changed, but noth- ing brought about the expected result. In view of the importance of the experiment we were not * This Journal, vol. iv, July, 18t2. E. S. Dana—Mineralogical Notes. 139 ingly, we repeated the described experiment with the following modifications: The final flask, above mentioned, in which the carbon monoxide and the ozone were brought together, was replaced by two large glass balloons, and these were placed in the direct light of the sun. Again slow currents of carbon monox- ide and ozone were passed through the apparatus for hours, the rapidity of the currents being varied at diflferent times. In this case also we obtained only a negative result. We hence are in a position to assert positively that carbon monox- ide is not oxidized by ozone. If we now bear in mind that ozone acts destructively upon a great many saturated stable compounds, that one of the atoms of the ozone molecule has a great ^tendency to unite with other bodies, then the result of the above described experiments remains inexplicable. It shows at nil events that carbon- monoxide itself, at the ordinary temperature, has no very great tendency to unite with oxygen, for, if our ideas in regard to the nature of ozone are correct, the conditions for such union were very favorable in our experiment. VVe hope gradually to be able to experiment more fully upon this interesting subject with the object of collecting material which may enable us better to understand the nature of the so-called non-saturated compounds. We propose next to study the action of hydrogen peroxide upon carbon monoxide. Art. XYl.—Minerahgical Notes ; by Edward S. Dana. — No. I. On the Optical Character of the Chondrodite of ike Tilly Foster Mine, Brewster, Neiv York. In a memoir on the Brewster chondrodite, published in the third volume of the Transactions of the Connecticut Acad- emy, I have given the results of an optical examination of chondrodite crystals of the second type.* It was there shown that the optic axes lie not in the basal plane, but in a plane making an angle of about 154° 10' with the base; and, in con- sequence, that the crystals of this type, at least from that local- ity, belong optically not to the orthorhombic system, but to the monoclinic, while the various measurements proved that the deviation in angle from the orthorhombic type could not be greater than 2 or 3 minutes. A recent repetition of the meas- urements with the stauroscope on the same crystals, and also on another not examined before, confirm the results ob- * See also this Journal, III, ii, 63, for extracts from the paper. 140 G. U. Shepard on Hermannolite. tained, and leave do room for doubt on the subject. The fol- lowing is the evidence on this point thus far obtained. Measurements on four independent crystals gave for the supplement angle made by the plane of the axes: y j With e^ (§-5=203), 18° 9'; hence with basal plane, 25° 50', ^' ] With 62(21=201), 45° 9'; '" " " " 25° 46'. ir. With 6a(f ?=205), 40° 65 ; " " " " 25° 59'. m. With i5(a= 100), es^-ro"; « " " « 20°-25°. IV. With the basal plane, direct measurement, 25°. I have since made an optical examination of a crystal of the third type. One single crystal of this type allowed of a stauro- scopic examination. Only a small portion of it was transpar- ent enough for use, but the circumstances allowed of a very exact adjustment according to the method of Groth, and the probable error cannot exceed one degree. The measurement gave for the supplement angle between the base and the plane of two of the axes of elasticity 7|°, a result which, like the cor- responding one obtained for the second type, is at variance with the supposed orthorhombic character of the species. The series of measurements were made at different times with independent adjustments, but no considerable variation was found in the result, so that it may be considered as being above question. It is remarkable that the coi-respondence between the two types is not greater. In crystalline form the third type is between the first and second. I have to regret that no satisfactory material is at hand for the extension of these investigations to the Vesuvian huraite. It may not be out of place to state here that, through the kindness of Mr. Cosgriff, the Yale College Cabinet has recently received some exceptionally large crystals of chondrodite from 'illy-Foster Iron Mine. The crystals were quite perfect, and four inches or more in length. Like all the large crystals they are partially altered, and have therefore little luster. They are penetrated with serpentine and brucite derived from their alteration. Art. XVII. — On Hermannolite, a new species o/ the ColumUum group ; by Charles Upham Shepard, Sr., Mass. Professor of Natural History in Amherst College. In vol. 1, p. 90, of this Journal (1870), I described as proba- bly new, a Columbium mineral from Haddam, Connecticut, to which in June last* I gave the name of Hermannolite, in honor * See Popular Guide to the Museums of Amherst College, p. 71. C. U. Shepard on Hermannoh'te. 1-il of Dr. R Hermann of Moscow, to whom chemistry has been so much indebted for the elucidation of this difficult group of minerals. By reference to my description of the mineral it will be seen that I went no further than to determine the proportions of the bases, and of the metallic acids with which they were united, without attempting to ascertain the order in which the latter were present. I thus found : Metallic acids, 78*30 Protoxide of iron, 13-86 Protoxide of i Desirous of learning the exact proportions of the diflPerent acids, I availed myself of an opportunity during the past sum- mer of sending specimens to Mr. Hermann for this purpose. He has had the goodness to perform the analysis, and to com- municate to me his results in the following letter. "Your opinion that the mineral from Haddam, which you most kindly named for me, was not columbite has been fully corroborated : for it contains no hyponiobous acid (Nb^O'), as the columbite does; but niobous acid (NbO''); and, in addition, hypoilmenic acid (I^C), and also, a small quantity of bypo- tantalic acid (Ta^O^- The chemical formala is therefore quite different from that of the Columbite: i. e., notRO, Me^O^, but 2(2RO, 3Nb02) + (RO, Me206)I1206 = {iTa20sH-|I120s). The result of the analysis ^ Hypotantalic acid, 7*029 o_.^^ ous acid, . 56-154 12290 Protoxide of iron, 12-560 2-79 ) Protoxide of manganese, 9-340 2-10 \ The lower specific gravity of the mineral observed by you as well as the easy solubility in sulphuric acid of the metallic acid present, are readily explained from their small content of tantalic acid, and from the greater proportion of oxygen in the niobous acid as compared with that of the hyponiobous acid in Columbite." SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. L Chemistry and Physics. 1. On the Dldymium absorption-spectrum and the Atoi weight of Cerium. — BUheig has examined the methods for preparation of pure cerium and has made an elaborate determ tion of its atomic weight. As the absorption spectrum of didym- ium is so characteristic, the author made a careful study of it, with a view to use it to prove the freedom of the cerium from this metal. The pure sulphate in a tube 22 cm. long (1-0454 grams in -50 c. c. of water) gave 11 bands. Upon dilution, it was found that in this tube ^yVr g^^"^ ^^ ^^^ sulphate in 100 c.c. water— cor- responding to iy^2 gram Di, — could be detected by its bands. In a tube 52 cm. long, jtItt^^ gram of sulphate, corresponding to 5¥iT5 gram of didymiura, could be tfms detected. Using a Duboscq, in place of the Hoffmann spectroscope, three additional absorption lines were observed, making in all 14. The spectrum given by a crystal of sulphate 0*9 mm. thick, contained 22 lines, and was considerably different from the others. Plates of these spectra are given. The cerium was obtained pure from the mixed oxalates of the cerite earths, by igniting these without the addition of magnesia, by solution in nitric acid, and precipitation of the cerium as ceroso-ceric sulphate. This precipitate, after washing, was obtained free from didymium by Gibbs' method. The atomic weight of cerium was determined from the combustion of the oxalate and was found to be, as a mean of ten closely concordant results, to be 94-1782. The author adds some analytical data concerning the salts of cerium, — J. pr. Gh.^ II, xii, 209, Nov., 1875. G. F. B. 2. On the Density of Platinum, of Iridium and of their Alloys. — Sainte-Claire Deville and Debray have prepared with great care both platinum and iridium in a state of purity and have determined the density of these metals as well as that of several of their alloys. The methods which they made use of to purify these metals are given at length in their memoir. The platinum ingots weighed from 200 to 250 grams, and gave a density of 21-5. The iridium, after breaking under the rolls, had a density of 22-42104; in the ingot, as melted, of 22-239. An alloy of 90 per cent of platinum and 10 of iridium had a density of 21 -615 ; of platinum 85 and iridium 15, of 21-618; of 66-67 platinum and 33-33 iridium, 21-874; of platinum 5 and iridium 95, 22-384; thus increasing quite regularly.— (7. B., Ixxxi, 829, Nov., 1875. 3. New method of Chlorinating Hydrocarbons.- Chemistry and Physics. 14 I'ed it to be a far more energetic chlorine cam( than iodine, since (1) it acts more readily and quickly, (2) carries the process more uniformly from one stage to the next, i (3) it can be I "' ^ .- - grams anhydrous benzol,' S chlorine be passed through it, heat being applied by a water-bath and a return-cooler being used, after three days the liquid solidi- fies on cooling to a)i intermixed crystal mass, consisting of nearly pure para-dichlor-benzol, which after purification is equal in weight to the benzol taken. By acting on toluol in this way, the author in conjunction with Dietrich, has obtained several new chlorine derivatives of this hydrocarbon. — Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 1400, Nov., 18/5. G. F. B. 4. On the Effect of Mass on the Chemical action of Water.— OsTWALD has made, in the laboratory of the Dorpat University, a research upon the action of water in mass upon chemical action, A concentrated solution of bismuth chloride in hydrochloric acid was divided into 25 equal portions. To the fii-st, water was added till a permanent turbidity appeared, and quantities of water gradually increasing from this were added to the other portions, the last receiving enough to precipitate all the bismuth. After standing six weeks, the various liquids were separately analyzed, the chlorine, bismuth, hydrogen and w^ater being determined. These results are given in a table. To compare them a second table is given in which the chlorine and bismuth are calculated for 100 parts of water. If from these figures a curve be constructed with those for bismuth as abscissas and chlorine as ordinates, the form of the curve for two-thirds of its length is a hyperbola. The first third is nearly a straight line, differing from this no more than is allowed by experimental errors. Hence either BerthoUet's law is true and the action is exactly proportional to the mass, the curve being due to foreign influ( " ' " '' "' ^* author inclines to the former view; since he has detected one such disturbing cause in the fact that considerably more of the bismuthyl chloride remains suspended in the diluter than in the more concentrated liquids.— Ji jt>r. Ch., II, xii, 264, Nov., 1875. 5. Formation of Alizarin by Beduction of BufigaUic Acid.— WiDMAN has observed that when rufigallic acid is reduced by sodium amalgam, a violet solution is obtained. On precipitating this by hydrochloric acid and dissolving the precipitate in potassa, banum chloride throws down a second precipitate, which when treated with HCl leaves a residue. This dissolved in methyl alcohol or acetic acid, is left on evaporation. Heated to 250°, it sublimes in brilliant orange-red needles, having all the reactions of alizarin. Hence rufigallic acid is hexa-oxyanthraquinone CiJIaj JhO^' and the production of alizarin in the vegetable kingdom, is ex- plained.— ^m«. iSoc. Ch., II, xxiv, 359, Nov. 1875. g. f. b. 144 Scientific Intelligence. 6. On the Separation of Mixed Liquids. — Duclaux has made a careful study of the conditions under which a homo- geneous mixture of two liquids will separate into Iavo entirely distinct layers, and has arrived at some very curious results. He finds, for instance, that a mixture of 15 cubic centimeters of amyl alcohol, 20 cubic centimeters of ordinary alcohol and 32-9 cubic centimeters of water, gives at the temperature of 20° C, a molecularly unstable grouping, so that the least diminution of temperature causes it to separate into two nearly equal layers : He states that under these conditions the composition of the two layers is invariably the same whatever the composition of the initial liquid, the layers varying only in amount. The same fact is also true of three as of two liquids ; though in this case the third liquid takes no part in the separation, and remains the same in each of the two layers as in the original liquid. Hence it is al- ways possible to start with a given liquid such that by depres- sion of the temperature, two layers of the same volume are pro- duced. The range of variation of temperature necessary to effect this separation is extremely minute, being much less than a tenth of one degree Centigrade ! Moreover, the introduction of mere traces of certain substances, as sodium and calcium chlorides and other soluble salts, and the vapor of chloroform produce the same effect as a lowering of temperature. So also a drop of water or one of amyl alcohol will cause the separation. The author has applied this phenomenon to the construction of an ingenious mini- mum thermometer. By varying the amount of water present m the above mixture for example, the temperature at which separa- tion ensues may be varied. The solutions may be readily pre- pared by taking the necessary quantities of aniyl and ethyl alco- hol, maintaining them at the exact temperature required and adding water drop by drop, until a slight turbidity appears, which should dissolve upon the slightest heating. The mixture is then placed in a tube and this is hermetically sealed. Ordinarily the liquid is clear but it becomes turbid as soon as the temperature falls below that at wbich it was prepared. A few drops of car- mine in ammonia makes the separation more distinct, since the lower layer only is colored. If ten parts of ether be mixed with six of commercial methyl alcohol, and water be carefully added as above, a liquid will be obtained acting as a maximum thermom- eter, since it becomes turbid and separates when the temperature rises above that at which it was made. This is colored with a little blue ink. Several tubes of each kind would evidently be exceedingly useful in maintaining a given temperature constant for any purpose, since thev could be graduated to any interval— C. JR., Ixxxi, 815, Nov., 1*875. g. f. b. 1. Stationary Liguid Waves. Professor Guthrie has recently communicated to the London Physical Society the results of his observations on wave motion. If water in a cylindrical vessel, not less than nine inches in diameter, be agitated by depressing and elevating a flat circular-disk on its surface at the center, a form of Chemistry and Physics. 145 lliition is set up whirli the author terms binodal fie finds these fundamental undulations in an infinitely deep circular ^v\ are isoohronoua ^vith those of a pendulum whose length is il to the radius of the vessel, and that the pendulum and water > tou^'ther throughout their entire paths. This was sliown eruuentally by a short pendulum with a heavy adjustable bob, iIl^• a card-board sector attached to its upper end. A silk ■ad attached to the edge of this sector carries a small parathn , which rests at the center of the surface of the water con- ('«1 in the cylindrical vessel. The length of the pendulum is re of the hlood the aorta does no m one artery to another. Its owi artcriis where they arc gradually 1 ir it ab-()rl)s and extincruishes 1 rin/s., iv, 25. [KD Skuie^, Vol. XI, No. 62.- Feb.. 1876. isparency of flame. From one 1 lighthouse lamps, having a diameter of from 146 Scientific TntelUgence. 9. Transparency of Flame and of the ^Im— M. E. Allakd has presented to the French Academy several memoirs on the absorp- tion of the light of lighthouse^ lamps. The first r • ^ • - raps, nparison of the luminous intensity of the flames shows that the brightness increases a little less rapidly than the con- sumption of the oil ; comparing the intensity with the dimensions of the flame, it appears that the brightness per square centimeter increases, but that per cubic centimeter diminishes with the size of the flame. This difference may be accounted for by assuming that the flame is not perfectly transparent. Three methods were adopted for measuring the absorption, by comparing the light of the edge and side of a flat flame, by reflecting the light a second time through the flame by a mirror, and by viewing the electric light through a large flame. The results lead to the coefiicient of •80 for the absorption per centimeter in thickness. After having established the theoretical formulas whicli give the effective brightness of the flame as a function of its volume and coefficient of absorption, it appears that to satisfy the obser- vations we must assume that the specific brightness increases a little with the diameter. Multiplying then the specific brightness by the volume, it appears that the total quantity of light increases much more rapidly than the weight of oil burned; but as the quantity of light absorbed increases still more rapidly, the light increases a little less rapidly than the oil consumed, as experiment The second memoir relates to the nocturnal transparency of the atmosphere. Observations are made three times every night by the lighthouse-keepers, as to which of the adjacent lights are visible. Combining the results for several years gives the per- centage of nights on which each light is seen. The equation of the range of visibility and a graphical construction serve to show for each light in all cases what degree of transparency of the air is needed to render the light visible. A curve may then be con- structed with the transparency of the air and the visibility of the lights as coordinates. From this it appears that during half the year the coefi&cient of transparency per kilometer exceeds -91 in the Atlantic and '932 in the Mediterranean. Similar cui-ves give the transparency at different points along the coast, and during The third memoir treats of the apparent brightness of a light caused by revolving the system of lenses employed with greater or less rapidity. With a certain velocity, a flickering effect is produced, but with an increased speed the light becomes steady with an intensity one or two tenths less than would be obtained by distributing the light uniformly around the horizon. — Cornptes Rendus, Ixxxi, 1096. e, c. p. 10. Mheric Force of Edison.— Yvo?. E, J. Houston, in an arti- cle in the January number of the Journal of the Franklin Institute, Geology and Mineralogy. 147 concludes from his experiments — as many physicists may have concluded from the published account of the supposed new force — " that all the phenomena noticed by Mr. Edison are explainable by the presence of inverse electrical currents of considerable quantity, but comparatively small intensity, instantaneously pro- • duced at the making or breaking of the battery circuit." II. G-EOLOGY A^D MINERALOGY. 1. U. 8. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, F. V. Hatden in charge. Department of the Interior. Bulletin No. 5, Second series. Washington, Jan. 6, 1876.— This new Bulletin contains the following important papers : A review of the fossil flora of North America, by L. Lesquereux; New fossil plants of the Lignitic formations, and from the Dakota group of the Cretaceous, by L. Lesqueeetjx ; Notes on the Lignitic group of Eastern Colorado and Wyoming, by F. V. IIayden; Geology of localities near Canon city, by S. G. Williams; On Zapiu " ^ sonim, and on the breeding habit " . le white-tailed Ptarmiga S. A. ; List of Hemiptera of the ^ including those collected during the" explorations of 1873, by P.' R. L'hler ; On the supposed ancient outlet of Great Salt Lake, by A. S. Packard, Jr. The question as to the age of the Lignitic beds is here dis- cussed anew by Prof. Lesquereux with the presentation of some additional facts. His conclusions remain unchanged. They are as follows.— Above the Lower Cretaceous beds or those of the Dakota group, in the Rocky Mountain region, the first fossil plants met with are the species of the Lignitic formation. This formation is divided into (1) the Lower Lignitic, marked by the presence of a profusion of Palms, especially species of Sabal (showing a warm, moist climate, like that of Florida, while the Cretaceous plants of the Dakota group indicate one like the f Ohio) along with species of Fieus, Citinamomum, Mag- the Ev! ) Acer), and referable to the Locene; (2) 106^° W.) "or Middle Jliocene," aoove wnicn comes ^-4; tue Oreen River Group, or Upper Miocene. The flora of No. 2 in- cludes thus far 90 species, of which a third are known from No. 1 : fruits have been found that have been referred to the Palms, but no leaves ; there are also in it dentate and serrate leaves of Salix, Aetata, Alniis and Acer. The flora of the Carbon Group is "positively Miocene;" 18 species, or nearly a third of all, are identical \vith European Miocene plants, and 1:J with Arctic Mio- cene, while a few occur also in the Lower Lignitic (No. 1.) Among 23 species from the Point of Rocks, referred to No. 1, or the Lower Lignitic, two occur also in beds to the north of the 148 Scientific InieWgence. United States boundary, called Tertiary by G. M. Dawson, seven are identical with, and five related to, species of the Lower Mio- cene of Europe, two occur in the Arctic Miocene, three are found also at Golden, eight at Black Butte, and two have some analogy with Cretaceous types. Hayden, in his* remarks on the Lignitic beds, observes that there are lignitic or coal beds in both the Cretaceous and Ter- tiary formations of the Rocky Mountain region; but that, so far as Eastern Colorado is concerned, from Raton Hills to Cheyenne, the lignitic beds are not associated with marine deposits, but those of brackish water or freshwater origin, and that these are not Cretaceous, but of Eocene age, the evidence from the plants pointing, according to Lesquereux, to this conclusion. He further states that in Southern and Southwestern Colorado, as shown by Mr. Holmes and Dr. Endlich of the expedition, and also other authorities, heavy beds of coal occur all through the Cretaceous. Hence, taking, he says, the whole Rocky Mountain region into view-, there is a Lower Lignitic group which is marine and Cre- taceous ; above this, the Middle Lignitic, brackish water in origin, which is Lower Tertiary or transitional ; and next the Upper Lignitic^ freshwater in origin, which is unquestionably Tertiarg. The coal deposits of Carbon are included in the third of these divisions, and those of Bear River and Cordville in the first. Dr. Hayden observes that Dinosaurian remains occur even in the freshwater or upper division, as noticed by Cope and Marsh ; but that the species are not identical with any known Cretaceous species. The Green River beds overlie the Lignitic beds uncon- formably. The difference between Prof. Lesquereux's view and those of Dr. Hayden appears to be this : Lesquereiix makes the Eocene to include the Bear River and Coalville beds, and all the older Lig- netic beds the fossil plants of which he has examined (including those even of Vancouver Island, where Ammonites and Baculites occur in beds overlying the coal) ; while Dr. Hayden admits that there is a series of Cretaceous coal beds, that the Bear River and Coalville deposits are included in it, and that these Cretaceous strata are distinguished by being mainly marine and containing Cretaceous fossils. Between the views of Prof. Lesquereux and those of the zoological paleontologists the divergence is great. For while he makes the Green River beds (containing remains of fossil plants and fishes) " Upper Miocene," and the Carbon beds " Mid- dle Miocene," Leidy, Cope, and Marsh hold that even higher strata, namely, those overlying the Green River beds conformably (having an estimated thickness of five or six thousand feet) and which contain the oldest Mammalian remains of that part of the continent, are Eocene ; and that the underlying Green River beds are Lower Eocene ; and further that all the Liginitic beds, that are older than the Green River beds, are Cretaceous, since they contain Dinosaurian remains,' and some of them other Cretaceous Oeology and Mineralogy. 149 IS widely the bo^t authorities differ ; partly because European of ovolotricnl au^e avo not always good for use in America, artlv, aKo, from deficient American testimony. We are dis- Miocene — as must he true if T.esquerenx's conclusions are rip-lit. SecoNdh/. Mammalian fo^vils are a lar safer criterion of geolog- ical age than f()>Nil plants— since the changes in the species of greater than in those of plants; and as the mammals of the beds next a!)ove the (^ireen Kiver beds are strongly Eocene in their cliaracteristics— as attested to by I-eidy, Marsh and ('ope — it is exceedint-lv improbable that the beds aifbrding the fossil mammals should he rp])er Miocene, or Miocene at all. Thirdhj. if the beds containing these mammalian remains, to- gether ^^irh the nnderhi'iag (rre" the Evanvtoii be. of them auriferous, amijhibolite, coal is anthracitic, parti v gi said to have been rendered phyry. To the northwest . ine serpentine or magne^iaii rock- c^^wv a i.ir-*- pare o island. The_ serpentine coutniiis In-.-ii/itr -r diali.iL'c <-hi '* veins" of chrysolite. It pa>>>i-> intu ubitr .ULfilhMHuus [j.rol hydro-micaj schists, and these arc intim.itcly a^-<'ciateil wit serpentinous schists'[facts which prove that'the serpentine i; as Garnier states, igneous, but, like most serpentine rocks. 152 Scientific Intelligence. morphic]. Chromic iron is abundant on Mont d'Or ; an analysis of it afforded J'e 3400, «r 61-33, Si 0-11, Mg 0-01, gi 4-63^100-08. Ores of nickel occur in the serpentine, and are of workable value. The only ore mentioned is a o:reenish piraelite-like silicate, a vari- ety of which has been named garnierite. M. Gamier, who is in charge of the New Caledonia mines under the I'rench Government, has jmblished on the Geology of New Caledonia in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of IVance, II, xxiv, 438, 1866, and in the An/tales des Mines,' VI, xii, 1867 ; and later communications have appeared in the Moidteur de la Xouvelle Caledonie.— Abstract of part of Address of Rev. W. B. Clarke before the Royal Society of New South Wales, at the AiDiiversary meeting in 3Iay, 1875. 8. Achrernatite, a new mineral ; by Prof. J, W. Mallet. — This mineral is in general compact, with indistinct crystalline structure; an examination in polarized light suggested that it might belong to either the hexagonal or tetragonal systems. Color, a sort of liver-brown, though under the microscope the pure grains appear pale sulphur-yellow. Streak, pale cinnamon- brown. Luster, between resinous and adamantine. Translucent on thin edges, in minute grains nearly transparent. G.= 5 -960 on a solid fragment, but = 6*178 with a fine powder. H.= 3-4. Fracture uneven ; brittle. A mean of three analyses gave, after deducting impurities, f)As2O5,18-25,MoO3,5-0],Cl2-15,Pb6-28,PbO68-31 = 100-00, which makes achrernatite a molybdo-arsenate of lead. Several reasons are given for the conclusion reached that the arsenate and molybdate of lead are in chemical combination, and not mechan- ically mixed. The name is derived from dxptniaro:^ in allusion to the fact that it contains no silver as was alleged. Locality, the mine of Guanacere, State of Chihuahua, Mexico.— e/! Ghem. Soc, II, xiii, 1141, Nov., 1875. e. s. d. 9. Schrauffe, a now fossil resin from Bukowina described by V. Schrockeringer. It occurs in rounded masses imbedded in a bed of slatey sandstone. Its hardness is 2-2*8 ; specific gravity 1-1-2; fracture conchoidal ; color hyacinth-red. It is decomposed -ath the evolution of gas at a temperature of 326° C. Its compo- ' -' -- - It jg named after eichs., .Mav, 1875, P- 134. E. s. D. 10. Identity of Seebachite with B/iacolite ; v. Rath.— The zeolite from Richmond, Victoria, described by Ulrich and later made identical with herschelite by von Lang, was made a new i by Bauer, under the name of seebachit :ll,r pendix II, p. 50). A recent examination of the mineral, iii)on somt good crystals, by vom Rath, has proved that the mineral called seebachite is not orthorhombic, as claimed by von Lang, but rhombohedral, and that it is really indentical with phacolite, a variety of chabazite.— ^er. Ak., Berlin, 1875, 523. e. s. d. Botany and Zoology. 163 11. A new species of Ihihnaniafrom Port Jervis, Xetr York.— J)i. s. T. Hairett, of Port Jer\ is, lias recently described a new "^jn cies of Dalmania from the Lower Helderberg of that \icinity, uiid named it D. dtntata. A description l)j "him, accompanied Mith a plate, v\ill appear in the next number of this Jouinal. III. Botany and Zoolcxjv. 1. Xaudin on the Xafmr of JTereil}t>i and Van,dnht Plants.— Why is it the nature and essence of species to 1 leul and why do specie^ sometime'^ \ai>? In other A\onK, a\] off'sptini^ like pari'nt, and when unlike^ in certain particulars. ^ properly enouoli take these t\\o associated vet ojtpooed Iml tirst principles": lUit it is equally proper and" leiritimate to en< after the cause of them. jM. Xaudin, a oood manv yoais ago, took up the p phmts, andfoUowul up. ia ' hfe oi certait. self-fertile the chaiacters ot two closely related c- 7num and JJ. Tatida, w ere mixed, an. the two began to separate in the elos generation, ending in a complete di\ isic into those of the two constituent speci yqjtes Pendus of Sept. 27th abstract of f paper of which the text wa^ simiri-t.-l b\ a liybrM between the wild LaHnra rh-o.,, and a ^.u^^\^ -.f A. its seed^ were fully fertile; a great n,imi)ii <.t \(.imu |m u i^ v, . re raised irom them, Jfwdiichtwn.tywerL puM.Ccd to. luh -.(vd- opment and studv. Like other lubrids tin nri-p, il ^'nu.d no character which w^a^ not evi deriyd tiuni llu' ^^^'' i-.m-its; f'Pecl, although 'tin \ varied (\ceidinnl\ iwnuu tl.nnM 1-^ < - in the 154 Scientific Intelligence. To this proposition we accede, so far as respects the direct - conseqiieiice of crossing. To fill up the interval more or less between two forms or species with intermediate patterns may tend to the fusion or confusion of the two, but not to the orioi na- tion of new forms or species. Although Naudin's own expei-iments lead him to deny all tendency to variation overpassing these limits, we do not forget that his countryman, the late M. Vilmorin,— working in a different way and with another object, — arrived at a different conclusion. He succeeded, as we understand, in origin- novelties fn.rn species which refused to vary per se, by making a cross,— not to infuse the character of the t parent, for he fertilized the progeny with the pollen of the ftr parent, and thus early bred out the other blood, but to induce ►vhich, once initiated in the internal disorder consequent upon the crossing, was apt to proceed, or might be led on by se- lection, to great lengths, according to Vilmorin. The variations in question, being mainly such as are sought in floriculture, may not have passed the line laid down by Naudin, or actually have intro- duced new features. But such plants would surely'have no ex- emption from the ordinary liability to variation. If other plants vary, in the sense of producing something new, so may these. This brings us to another inference which Naudin draws. Hav- ing observed that his hybrids in their manifold variation exhibited nothing which was not derivable from their immediate ancestry, he directly (and in our opinion too confidently) concludes that all variation is atavism, — that when real variations are set up in ordi- nary species, this is not an origination but a reversion, a breaking out of some old ancestral character, a particular and long deferred instance of this variation desordonnie, which would thus appear to be the only kind of variation. This view has been presented before, but not, perhaps, so broadly. Adducing some theoretical considerations in its favor— to which we may revert— and some sound reasons against the view that variation is caused by external influences, he declares it " infinitely more probable that variation of species properly so called is due to ancestral influences rather than to accidental actions." We might think so if these two categories wen- (Exhaustive, and external conditions must be supposed to act iminediately, as the cause rather than the occasion of variation. But tlie supposition that "accidental actions," whatever they may be, and external influences of every sort do not produce but 'educe and conduct variation — which is our idea of what natural selection means— avoids the force of Naudin's arguments. Moreover Naudin's view, regarded as an hypothesis for explain- ing variation, leaves the problem just where it finds it. To ex- plain the occurrence of present and actual variations, hypothetical ones like those of a former time are assumed; the present diversity implies not only equal but the very same anterior diversity, and so on backwards. Or rather it demands a much greater diversity at the outset than now ; for these aberrant forms are the rare exception, anrl if due to atavism they imply the loss of the many and the inci- Botany and Zoology. jnes evidently due That some variation is atavism is clear enough. This is the natural explanation of the appearance of characters wanting in the immediate parents but known in their ancestors or presumed ancestors. But the assumption of hypothetical ancestors to ac- count for variation generally is quite another thing. Besides its bility as an hypothesis is set in a strong light by Naudin's own forcible conception of the nature of heredity. What is heredity ? he asks. In other words, what keeps species so true, ofFspiing like parent, through the long line of generations? He illustrates hereditary force by comparing its action with that of physical force, in which the movement from one state of equilibrium to another is always that in which there is least resistance. From which it follows that when it has once begun to proceed in a cer- tain course, its tendency to continue in that direction increases, be- cause it facilitates its way as it overcomes obstacles. In other words this line becomes fixed by habit; vires acquirit eundo ; the stream deepens its bed by flowing ; and the more remote the commencement of a certain course, the more fixed its directi(>n, and the greater its power of overcoming opposition. The speties 18 kept true in its course by the sura of the heredities wliirii |-n tii.it. as Naudin remarks, if we could calculate the energy witli which line onward in the same direction, we should better apprehi-nd the persistence of species, and feel the great improbability that the stream will ever escape from its ancient and well-worn bed, and strike into new courses. Xow, in the first place, the more li\ i-ly the concei^ion we fhii« form of the invariability of species, thmuuli :i happy itictai'}!<>ii<-al the less the possibility of its turninLT l^ack \\\nn\ it-clf. and rrMirn- ing old characteristics. The e.Mic- <.f ata\i>-ni irlic ic-umpti-.n of dropped characters) are not lik.lv To . '\tc. id Lack vnvfar; and It seems gratuitous to have recourM- r.. them in explanation oi ,u-%v fornis. Moreover, althonirh the ^tnani ha- maJe ir- he.j aii^i lies "» it, not escaping fn.ni iiZ <,nmi xmHcv. it h tlexil.le . i.oULdi to ul)- Like Agassiz. Naudin i-onccivo < 156 Scientific Intelligence. numerous reciprocal crosses have determined the direction of the line in which their posterity have evolved. But he mantains that these individuals, and all existing species, had a common origin in a " proto-organism ;" and that the various lines of descent acquired fixity into species only as they acquired sexuality. If we rightly apprehend it, Naudin's idea of the purport of sexual reproduction (as contrasted with that by buds) is, to give fixity to species. Our idea is a different one, both as to the essential mean- ing of sexuality, and as to its operation in respect to fixity. His conception may be tested by enquiring which are the more varia- ble or sportive, seedlings or plants propagated from buds. This we suppose can be answered in only one way. M. Naudin is a veteran and excellent investigator ; and nothing which he writes is to be slighted. We have frankly set down our impressions upon a first perusal of his important communication ; but are ready to revise them, if need be, upon more deliberate consideration. a. g. 2. First Forms in Ver/etation ; by the Rev. Hugh Macmillan, LL.D., F.R.S.E. With numerous illustrations. Second edition, corrected and enlarged. London : Macmillan & Co. 1874, pp. 438, ISmo.— The first edition under a somewhat different title, was published in 1861. In the present volume it is brought up to the time, and we suppose much amplified. As it stands it forms plitied. >f the 1 Cryptogaraic botany, from Mosses (and even Club-mosses) to Fungi. The materials of its chapters were first used for popular lectures, and this primary form and use gives its character to this re-written and now extended volume. The author wished to re- cast it in a systematic mold, but was deterred not only by the labor required, but by the doubt whether it were worth the while. We fancy it is better as it stands, and more likely to fulfill its pur- pose, which is "to kindle the sympathy and awaken the interest of the reader in a department of nature with which few, owing to the technical phraseology of botanical works, are familiar." The book is full of information, possibly too full for the object in view, except that it cannot be amiss to gratify as well as awaken inter- est in the lower forms of vegetation by referring to as large a number as is practicable. The spirit in which the subject is handled is indicated by the motto: '■'■ Deus magnus m magnis, maxinms in minimis;'''' and the sermonizings, being apposite, we have no right to intimate that they are too many and too long. There are good indexes of scientific and of popular names. It is not often that an amateur-botanist writes a book of this kind which is more free from serious errors or misunderstandings. But the statement that the antherozoids of mosses, although "furnished with cilia, like animalcules," yet " their motion is simply a hygro- metical action, like that of the teeth which fringe the mouth of the capsule," must be one which unaccountably escaped revision, even in the edition of 1861. So also the suggestion that sexual repro- duction may be gradually dispensed with in the lower plants and red alira [ TrlchoOtsihhnn erytlirrn > and the bony coat. .ler, the air is The embrvo i ;:'Ki;! such cases, is heavie r than water.' But t o this rule Va n Tieghem now brings to light a few exceptions, : md these in I seeds. In those of Ervthrina n-hta-mUK the sneciric ""S-'n-ityof the whole seed is 0-91. that of the emb ,-vo itself 0-S7. • Those of our Apioa tuherosa -. are a little li-hter, ot •our W;,tnTUi frut.srcns a little heavier than this, but still lisihter tiiaii water; a .,d various common leguminous seeds, although hea^ -icr than water lighter than would be suppose*!. This proves to be very loos, .-uul op.n v!:tr';.;ti!' le iniHT or upper side of the cot vledou" Uh!lt whiili : npp.r face of the U-af), leavin. ;' abundant intercelhi jlirspacJs an.i I pa>s:igos, filled with air, vvhicl r. renders this spongy • stratmn light enough in certain cases to float the otherwise heaVj - seeds. 158 Scientific Intelligence. 4. Use of the hi/grometic tiristing of the tail to the carpels of Erodium.—WG have no indigenous or common Erodiinn this side of Texas; but there and in California one or two species are common. The narrow carpel is pointed at base ; the long awn or style in drying bends at right angles with the carpel, and twists in many turns, depending on the amount of dryness, and untwists in a moister air or when wet. We had wondered that no one seemed to have given an account of the way in which this mechanism acts so as to bury the seed in the ground. Dispersed by the wind over the loose or sandy soil which these species prefer, the seed-bearing • the ground, and is the compan ively fixed point, around which the long awn makes circular (veeps, whether in twisting or untwisting. This gives a rotary lovement to the carpel, fixes the sharp end in the soil, and. whether twistmg or untwisting, causes it to bore i itself in the ground. It is the same with the gri " 5 that, when in this way thus interred, the mois- ture of the soil soon destroys the epidermis and this allows the long beak to detach itself at its articulation with the style, leaving it planted in good condition quietly to germinate. M. Roux enters into details about the effect of light, heat, chloroform, etc., upon this movement, which seem to us superfluous and wide of the of lines leadir^^ nd the Monkeys on the other. MM. Gran( dier and Alph. Milne Edwards, in their recent work on the Mam- mals of .Madagascar, show that the Lemurs have striking peculiari- ties in the conformation of the allantois and placenta, and not the close relation to the monkeys generally supposed. By injecting the capillary vessels of the placenta and uterus they have studied the vascular relations of the fetus with the mother, and established thus profound differences between the two types, which begin even in their intro-uterine Wie.—L'' Institut, Dec. 29. 6. Fauna of the Greenland ISeas.—The Fauna of the Greenland Seas, according to results obtained by the "Valorous" (on its return from Disco), agrees with its land flora in being mainly Norwegian, there being (with the exception of the EchinodeiTOs) an absence of many North American forms, which, as it appears, have not been found east of the meridian of Cape Chidley in Labrador. A Campamdaria was obtained identical with one found by Mr. Eaton, of the British Transit-of- Venus Expedition, at Kerguelen's Island ; also, in the towing-ne!:, a sponge-like dia- tom, Synedra Jeffreysi Dickie, with living Globigerinae entangled in the connecting protoplasmic matter of its frustules. The deep waters of Davis Straits afforded a mollusk which was long since found fossil in the newer Tertiary of Sicily, and was supposed to be extinct.— iVoc. Roy. iSoc, No. 164, p. 78. TV. Astronomy. 1. Neto Planet.— The discovery of another planet by Herr Knorre was announced by telegram to Prof. Henry, Jan. 11th. 2. Harvard Observatory Engravings. — The last instalments of the engravings from Harvard College Observatory have been dis- tributed to the subscribers. Instead of 30 plates as promised, 35 have been issued. These later plates represent two star clusters, six views of nebulae, four views of Donati's comet, and three of Coggia's comet. A letter press description of the engravings is, we understand, to be soon issued. 3. The Uranian and Neptunian Systems investigated with the 2%-inch Equatorial of the U. S. N\ Observatory; by Professor Newcomb. Appendix I of the Wash. Obs. for 1873, p. 74.— This paper is the first extended contribution of results obtained by the large Washington telescope. It is a discussion of the observa- tions made between November, 1873, and May, 1875, upon the four satellites of Uranus, and the satellite of Neptune. It closes with tables of the motions of the satellites, for a portion of which credit is given to Prof. Holden. Prof. Newcomb obtains ^^^^y^j as the most probable value of the mass of Uranus, with an estimated probable error of the denom- mator of lOO. He finds no evidence of any mutual inclination of the orbits of the four satellites and but slight evidence of any real eccentricity. The following are the mean distances from Uranns at the mean distance of Uranus from the sun: Ariel, 13'-78; Umbriel, W-2Q; Titania, 3l"-48; and Oberon, 42'-10. The periods of revolution are 2'^'520378; 4''-144537; 8''-705897, and 13'i-463260. The former two are not changed from the deter- minations of Lassell and Marth. The inclination of the plane to the ecliptic is 97°-85— 0-013T, counting from the epoch 1850. The only means of estimating the masses of the satellites is a com- parison of their light with that of the planet. From this Pro£ Newcomb infers that they probably do not exceed ys^j^Tr ^* ^^^ planet. If so their mutual action, and the sun's action on them, the planet, and outside of Oberon, having one-third the brilliancy of the latter, and therefore that none of Sir William Ilerschel's supposed outer satellites can have any real existence. The dis- tances of the four known satellites increase in so regular a way that It can hardly be supposed that any others exist betweeii them. Of what may be inside of Ariel, it is impossible to speak with certainty, since, in the state of atmosphere which prevails during our winter, all the satellites would disappear at 10" dis- tance from the planet. The planet always presented itself of a sea-green color. No variations of tint were ever seen. Markings on the planet were not especially looked for, but had any been visible they could hardly have escaped notice." For the mass of Neptune the value t^^^tt is obtained. In the 160 Miscellaneous Intelligence. perturbations of Uranus, Prof. Newconab used yg^j^^j. The distaii of the satellite from Neptune is 16 275, its daily motion 61°-2507 ''' ' ■■■ '- ' -' '■ '■ ; 145°12; and the orbit so far as obse Ratio of Ahsorptk Q. A. GiLLMORK. 38 pp. 8vo, with two plai port to the Chief of Engineers, 11. S. Army. (D. Van Nostrand.)— This report contains the results of a very careful series of experi- ments on various building stones of the country. I'he method of experimenting in the crushing is particularly described, and the results as to crushing-strength with the (mbes of stone in ditfereut positions, and between wood, lead and leather cushions, etc., are given in detail. The tables contain entries of 99 experiments on granites, 43 on limestones, 12 on marbles, and 62 on sandstones. 2. Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education., South JTen sin ff ton.— The Loan Exhibition of Scien- tific Apparatus will open on the 1st of April, 1876, and remain open until the end of September. It will consist of instruments and apparatus employed for research and other scientific purposes for teaching, and for illustration of the progress of science and its applications to the aits. Models, drawings, and photographs will be admissible where originals cannot be sent. Forms on which to enter descriptions of objects ofiered for exhibition may be obtained on application to the Director of the South Kensington Museum, London, S.W., and these forms should be tilled up and returned as to the adinissil)ility of the objects they propose to send. The Science and An Departnjent defrays the cost of carriage, but, while using all possible care, is not responsible for loss or damage. The circular issued expresses the hope that institutions or individ- uals having instruments of historic interest will be good enough to lend them. Tlie instruments and apparatus desired are of all important kinds connected with the subjects of arithmetic, geome- try, measurement, kinematics, statics, dynamics, molecular phys- ics, sound, light, heat, magnetism, electricity, astronomy, applied mechanics, chemistry, meteorology, geography, geology and min- ing, mineralogy, crystallography, biology, (microscopes, ifec.) 3. Works on the Paleontology of the Rocky Mountain Surveys Progress. — The first four months of this year will witness the ition of an unusually large number of works on the inverte- paleontology of the great Rocky Mountain and adjacent '■ which have been delayed several years. The brate pa! publishei MiscelUineotis Intelligence. 161 (1.) Paleontology of the Upper Missouri, by F. B. Meek; a quarto volume of between 500 and 600 pages of text and 45 lithographic plates of illustrations. It is confined to fossils of the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods, and is a very exhaustive treatise. (2.) Paleontology of Clarence King's Geological survey of the 40th parallel, quarto, by F. B. Meek. This Report comprises about 150 pages of text and 17 lithographic plates. It embraces fossils of Lower Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous ages and of the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. (3.) Paleontology of the Report of Capt. Simpson's expedition ; quarto, by F. B. Meek. Comprises about 100 pages of text and 5 lithograph plates. Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. (4.) Paleontology of the Report of Capt. McComb's expedition ; quarto. Cretaceous fossils, by F. B. Meek and Carboniferous fossils by J. S. Newberry. (5.) Paleontology of parts of Vancouver's Island and Washington Territory, by F. B, Meek. About 100 pages octavo, and 6 platea 6.) Invertebrate I Survey! e Paleontology of Lieut. Wheeler's Explorations ana surveys west of the 100th meridian ; quarto, by C. A. White. About 220 pages of text and 21 lithographic plates. This report embraces fossils of the Primordial, Canadian, Trenton, Subcar- bonilerous, Carboniferous, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary (7.) Preliminary Report on the Invertebrate Paleontology of the Plateau Province, by C. A. White, quarto ; about 50 pages. It will embrace fossils of the Carboniferous, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. Among other important facts it will contain an announ(^ment of the existence of open-sea marine deposits at Bijou Basin, forty miles east of Denver, Colorado ; the fossils of the deposit belonging to the genera Venus^ Mesodesma^ Dentalium, Phorus and an OcuUna undistinguishable from the species com- mon in the Vicksburg Tertiary beds. This is to form a part of a report nearly ready for publication by Professor J. W. Powell, Chief of the Second Division of the Geological Surveys of the Interior Department. c. a. w. 4. Geological Map of the iOth Parallel /Swrvey.— Map number n, by Clarence King, Geologist in Charge, and S. F. Emmons, Assistant Geologist, has been issued as authors proofs, dated Nov. 15th, 1875.^ — This map, which covers the Green River Basin and most of the Uinta Mountains, a region of great geological ir" ^ will be regarded as a model, as it has not been su] ~icy and artistic execution by any similar work : -V xa lu Lwo sheets, each 24 by 33 inches, and is on a scale of four miles t^ the square inch. It is the first of the series issued, and will be noticed more ftiUy when the other parts are published. 5. Depth of the North Pacific.— The soundings by the "Chal- lenger" in the North Pacific as given in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, No. 164, afford the following results : Along a line from California to the Sandwich Islands the mean aepth is 16,180 feet: and the least depth, about half way, near 13,000 feet. Am. Joux. SfiT., Third Sbribs-Vol. XI, No. 68.-F*b., 1876. 162 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Along a line from the Sandwich Islands to the Bonin Islands, south of Japan, the shoalest part is near 1^7° east longitude, where the depth is 6,650 feet. Between longitude 177° E. and the Sandwich Islands the mean depth is about 16,000 feet; maximum depth, 19,140 feet ; depth within eighty miles of the Sandwich Islands south of Kauai, over 14,000 feet. Between longitude 177° E. and the Bonin Islands, the mean depth is nearly 16,900 feet; maximum, 19,720 feet. On a line running north from the Sandwich Islands, between latitude 22° and 38° N., mean depth about 17,000 feet; and between this northern point and Japan, mean depth about 16,000 feet ; maximum, 22,800 feet, within 180 miles of Japan, and mini- mum near 178° E., 12,300 feet. The region of the minimum on this last route is nearly north of that on the route from the Sandwich Islands to the Bonin Islands ; but the depth is greatei-, being 12,300 feet against 6,660 feet on the latter. The mean depth for the north Pacific as deduced from all the deep-sea soundings is about 16,200 feet. 6. An Iceland chain of elevations in the North Atlantic— The ship " Valorous," which took out stores to Disco for the British Polar Expedition, made deep-sea soundings on its return. Among the discoveries, as mentioned in a Report to the Royal Society (Proc. No. 164), was an elevation of the ocean's bottom in latitude 56° N. and longitude 34° 42' W., to the southwest of Iceland, over which soundings of 690 fathoms were obtained between depths of 1450 fathoms on one side and 1230 on the other. Directly between this spot and Iceland, in latitude 59** 40' N., and 29° 30' W., H. M. S. " Bull-dog" found a similar elevation. In about the same direction, northeast of Iceland, there lies the island of Jan Mayen. This line is parallel to the Greenland coast, and the whole length thus indicated is over 1300 miles. Iceland and Jan Mayen being volcanic, it may be that the whole range is volcanic in nature or origin — an off-shore volcanic range. The line of this chain of elevations, moreover, if continued southwestward, passes just outside of Newfoundland and the Atlantic border of the United States. 7. Journal of the American Electrical Society, including Orig- inal and selected papers oti Telegraph^/ and Electrical Science. Vol. I, No. 1. 100 pp. 8vo, with several wood-cuts. Chicago: 1875. Published for the American Electrical Society.— A new, handsomely printed journal, devoted to electrical discoveries, and the various practical applications ol electricity. The first paper is on the transmission of musical notes telegraphically, bv Elisha Gray. The author closes with the statement that, "'by this method, not only may different messages be sent siraultaneously, but a tune with all its parts can be distinctly audible at the re- APPENDIX. Art. XYIU.— Principal Characters of the Dinocerata ; by O. a Marsh. With five plates. The huge Eocene mammals, discovered by the writer in 1870, and subsequently placed in the new order Dinocerata, prove to be a well marked group of much interest. The Yale College Museum now contains remains of more than a hundred individuals, some of them in such excellent preservation that few points in the osseous structure of these animals need longer remain in doubt. It is proposed, therefore, to give, in the present communication, the more important characters of the members of this order, reserving the detailed description for a separate memoir. Although several distinct genera of Dinocerata are now known, as shown below, the typical characteristics of the group are best seen in Dinoceras, and hence I describe first that genus, which is especially illustrated in the accompanying plates. DijfocEBAs Marsh, 1872.* The skull in Dinoceras is long and narrow, the facial portion being greatly produced. The basal line, extending from the lower margin of the foramen magnum along the palate to the end of the premaxillaries, is nearly straight. The top of the skull supports three separate transverse pairs of osseous eleva- tions, or horn-cores, which form its most conspicuous feature, and suggested the name of the genus. The smallest of these protuberances are situated near the extremity of the nasals ; a second much larger pair rise from the maxillaries in front of the orbits ; while the largest are on the parietals, and supported by an enormous crest, which extends from near the orbits entirely around the lateral and posterior margins of the true cranium. (Plate II.) The posterior crest, which curves up- ward and backward beyond the occipital condyles, is mainly composed of the supra-occipital. The floor of the deep depres- sion in front of this crest is formed by the parietals. These bones also send up the lateral crests. The top of the skull between the orbits is formed of the frontal bones, which are remarkably short. Their superior sutures with the parietals pass just in front of the lateral crest, and then converge poste- riorly. There is no postorbital process, but in some species of * This Journal, iv, 343, v, 117, 293 and 310. 164 0. a Marsh— Principal Characters of the the genus there is a prominence on the frontal, directly over the orbit. The nasals are greatly elongated, being nearly half the length of the entire skull They unite with the frontals by oblique sutures, directed backward and inward, and nearly parallel with the superior fronto-parietal sutures. (Plate II, figure 3.) The osseous protuberances on the extremities of the nasals are of moderate size in Dinoceras, but, like the max- illary horn-cores, vary much with age. Both may possibly have been covered with thick skin, and not with true horns. The orbit is large, and confluent with the temporal fossa. The latter is of great extent posteriorly, but the zygomatic arches are only moderately expanded. The squamosal forms the lower portion of the temporal fossa, and sends down a massive post-glenoid process, which bounds in front the external audi- tory meatus. The latter has for its posterior border the post- tympanic process of the squamosal, which unites directly with the paroccipital, thus excluding the mastoid from the external surface of the skull, as in Rhinoceros. The tympanic portion of the periotic, also, does not reach this surface. There are small air-cells in the walls of the temporal fossa, both in the squamo- sal and parietals. The squamosal sends forward a strong zygo- matic process, which resembles that in Tajpirus. The malar completes the anterior portion of the arch, extending to the front of the orbit. (Plate II, figure 1.) The lachrymal is large, and forms the anterior border of the orbit. It is perforated by a large foramen. The maxillaries are massive, and quite re- markable in supporting a pair of stout, conical horn-cores, which vary in form and size in different species. These cones are solid except at the base, which is usually perforated for the fang of the canine tusk. The premaxillaries are elongated, and without teeth. They unite posteriorly with the maxillaries just in front of the canine, and then divide, sending forward two branches, which partially enclose above and below the lateral portion of the narial aperture. (Plate II, figure 1.) The lower portion is slender, and resembles the premaxillary of some Ruminants. The premaxillaries are not united at their ex- tremities. The latter are rough, and probably supported a pad. The palate is very narrow and deeply excavated, especially in front. The anterior palatine foramina are in the premaxilla- ries, and vary much in different species. In D. mirahiU they are elongated fissures, enclosed between the lateral and palatine branches of the premaxillaries, as in Equus. In D. laticeps they are of small size, and oval in outline. The posterior palatine foramina are in the maxillaries near the anterior border, as in Hi2>popotamus. The posterior nares extend forward between the last upper molars. The occipital condvles are large, and bounded extenially in front and below by a "deep groove.^ They ?x 0. C. Marsh — Principal Characters of the Dinocerata. 165 )ject downward and backward, showing that the head was ;lined when in its natural position. The exoccipitals are per- forated by a condylar foramen of moderate size, which is sep- arated from the larger foramen lacerum posterius by a slender partition of bone. Between the post-glenoid process and the basi-sphenoid, there is an irregular cavity filled in part below by the periotic. There is a distinct alisphenoid canal, and the foramen ovale is near its posterior orifice. In front of its an- terior opening, is a small foramen lacerum anterius, and further forward, the optic foramen. The infraorbital foramen is large, and partially concealed behind the maxillary ridge which sup- ports the malar. The brain cavity in Dinoceras is perhaps the most remarka- ble feature in this remarkable genus. It proves conclusively that the brain was proportionately smaller than in any other known mammal, recent or fossil, and even less than in some reptiles. It was, in fact, the most reptilian brain in any known mammal. In D. mirahih, the entire brain was actually so diminutive that it could apparently have been drawn through the neural canal of all the presacral vertebrae, certainly through the cervicals and lumbars. The size of the entire brain as com- pared with that of the cranium is well shown in the accompa- nying cut, figure 1. The most striking feature .„._-_ relatively small size of the cerebral fossa, this being but little larger than the cerebellar portion. This is shown in Plate lY, the figures of which are drawn from a cast of the brain cavity of B. mirahile, the type of the genus. The cerebral hemi- spheres did not extend at all over either the cerebellum or the olfactory lobes. The latter were large, and continued well for- ward. The hemispheres were apparently convoluted, and the Sylvian fissure distinctly marked. There was a rudimentary 166 0. a Marsh— Principal Characters of the Dinoceraia. tentorial ridge. The cerebellar fossa is but little larger trans- versely than the medullar canal, and has lateral cavities which may have been occupied by flocculi. The pituitary fossa is nearly round, and of moderate depth. There are no clinoid processes. The brain as a whole resembled that in some Marsupials more than in any other known mammals. Its small size, as the writer has elsewhere shown, is a character apparently pertain- ing to all Eocene mammals ;* the brain-growth during the rest of the Tertiary period having been gradual, and mainly in the cerebrum. The teeth in Dinoceras are represented by the following formula : Incisors — ; canines — ; premolars — : molars _ ; X2=34. 3 ' 1 ' ^ 3 ' 3 ' The superior canines are long, decurved, trenchant tusks. They are covered with enamel, and their fangs extend upward into the base of the maxillary horn-cores. There is some evidence that these tusks were small in the females. Behind the canine, there is a moderate diastema. The molar teeth are very small. The crowns of the superior molars are formed of two transverse crests, separated externally, and meeting at their inner extremi- ties. The series is well shown in Plate III, which represents the upper premolars and molars of D. mirahile. The first true molar is smaller in this specimen than the two preceding pre- molars. The last upper molar is much the largest of the series. The lower jaw in Dinoceras is as remarkable as the skull. Its most peculiar features are the posterior direction of the con- dyles, hitherto unknown in Ungulates, and a massive decurved process on each ramus, extending downward and outward below the diastema. (Plate V.) The position of the condyles was evidently necessitated by the long upper tusks, as, with the ordinary ungulate articulation, the mouth could not have been fully opened. The low position of the condyle, but little above the line of the teeth, is also a noteworthy character. The long pendant processes were apparently to protect the tusks, which would otherwise be very liable to be broken. Indications of similar processes are seen in Smilodon, and some other Carnivores with long upper canines. With the exception of these processes, the lower jaw of Dinoceras is small and slender. The symphysis is completely ossified. The six incisors were contiguous, and all directed well forward. Just behind these, and not separated from them, was the small canine, which had a similar direction. The crowns of the lower molars have transverse crests, and the last of the series is the largest. (Plate V, figure 3.) The vertebrae in Dinoceras, in their main characters, resemble * This Journal, viii, p. 66, July, 1874. 0. a Marsh— Principal Characters of the Dinocerata. 167 those of Proboscidians. The atlas and axis are very similar to those of the elephant, but the rest of the cervicals are propor- tionally longer. The dorsal and lumbar vertebrge have the artic- ular faces nearly flat, and the lumbars have an inferior ridge on the median line. There are four sacral vertebrae, the last being }d, trans- The segments of the sternum were well ossified, and most of them were flattened vertically. The scapula, in its general form, is similar to that of the elephant, but there is much less constriction above the glenoid fossa. The latter is elongate, deeply concave longitudinally, and nearly flat transversely. The spine extends downward nearly to the glenoid border. The coracoid portion is a rugose protuberance, separate from the margin of the articular fossa. The humerus is short and massive, and in its main features resembles that of the elephant. One of the most marked dif- ferences is seen in the great tuberosity, which does not rise above the head, and is but little compressed. The condylar ridge, moreover, of the distal end is tubercular, and not con- tinued upward on the shaft. The lower extremity of the hu- merus is much like that of the rhinoceros, and the proportions of the two bones are essentially the same. The radius and ulna are nearly of the same size. The head of the radius rests on the middle of the ulnar articulation, and hence the shaft of this bone does not cross that of the ulna so obliquely as in the elephant. The ulna has a small face for articulation with the lunar, as in the elephant There are five well developed toes in the manus, which is well shown in Plate VI, figure 2. The carpal bones are eight in number, and form interlocking series, as in Perissodactyls. The scaphoid resembles that bone in the elephant, but is shorter and stouter. Its proximal end is rounded, forming about one- fourth of a sphere. On its distal end, the articular faces are confluent. It supports the trapezium and trapezoid. The pyra- midal sends down an outer angle to articulate with the fifth metacarpal, as in Elephas. The trapezoid is the smallest bone in the carpus. The magnum is supported by the lunar, and not at all by the scaphoid. The unciform is the largest carpal bone. It has the usual metacarpal faces well marked, and separated by ridges. The metacarpals are of moderate length, and the third is about equally supported by the magnum and unciform. The articulations for the phalanges are nearly flat, indicating but little motion. The phalanges are very short, and the distal ones rugose. . The pelvis is much expanded, as in Proboscidians. The ilium is suboval in outline. The pubis is slender and short, 168 0. C. Marsh — Principal Characters of the Dinocerata. and the ischium has less posterior extension than in the ele- phant. The thyroid foramen is an elongate oval. The femur is proportionally about one-third shorter than that of the ele- phant. The head of this bone has no pit for the round liga- ment, and the great trochanter is flattened and recurved There is no indication of a third trochanter. The distal end oi the femur is more flattened transversely than in the elephant, and the condyles are more nearly of the same size. The cor responding articular faces of the tibia are consequently aboul equal, and also contiguous, with no prominent elevation be- tween them. When the limb was at rest, the femur and tibia were nearly in the same line, as in the elephant and man. The patella is elongate, and oval in outline. The fibula is slender, and entire, with articular faces well marked at each extremity. The astragalus has no distinct superior groove. Its anterioi portion has articular faces for both the navicular and cuboid, thus differing from Proboscidians, and agreeing with Peris- sodactyls. The calcaneura is very short, its longitudinal and transverse diameters being about equal. It does not articulate with the navicular, as in Elephas^ and has only a small face for the cuboid. There are four well developed digits in the pes, 1 rudimentary or small hallux. The i shorter than the metacarpals. The phalanges and sesamoid bones are smaller, but otherwise similar to those of the manus. The hind foot is shown in figure 1 of Plate VI. None of the bones of the skeleton are hollow The known species of Dinoceras nearly equalled the elephant in size, but the limbs were shorter. The head could reach the ground, and there is no evidence of a proboscis. All the remains of the genus yet discovered are from the Eocene of Wyoming. Yale CoDege, New Haven, Jan. 18th, \%*l&. (To be continued.) Explanation of PLATEa w. One-eighth natural size. Plate m..— Dinoceras mirabile. Superi Plate lY .—Dinoceras mirabile. Cast of brain cavity. Figure 1, side v 2, top view; figure 3, bottom view. One-half natural sii Plate V. — Dinoceras laticeps Marsh. Lower jaw. Figure 1, front v: 2, Bide view ; figure 3, top view. One-fifth natural size. Plate Yl.— Dinoceras. Figure 1, hind foot; figure 2, fore foot. One-tl tfs^iisj^d© H AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIKD SERIES.] Art. XIX. — On the Veiled Solar Spots :* by L. Trouvelot. [Read before the American Academy by WiUiam A. Rogers, Oct. 12, IStS.] It is now pretty well established that the visible surface of the sun is a gaseous envelope called ''the chromosphere;" mainly composed of incandescent hydrogen gas, with which are occasionally associated some metallic vapors, usually occupying the lower strata. To all appearances, the granulations called " rice grains," the faculee and the protuberances, are phenomena belonging to the chromosphere ; in fact they are the chromo- sphere itself seen under the particular forms and aspects pecu- liar to it. 'Ordinarily this envelope has a thickness of 10'' or 15". This thickness, however, is by no means constant, vary- ing from day to day within certain narrow limits. At no time since I have observed the sun have I seen the chromosphere so thin and shallow as during the present year, and especially between June 10 and August 18. I had before quite often observed local depressions and upheavals of the chromosphere, sometimes extending over large surfaces, but I had never before observed such a general subsidence. So thin was the chromosphere during this period that it was sometimes very difficult to obtain its spectrum by placing the slit of the spectroscope tangent to the limb of the sun. This was especially the case on the afternoon of August 9. This unusual thinness of the chromosphere could be easily recognized without the assistance of the spectroscope. Indeed, telescope, as, with it, the structure of the photosphere, lying as * From the Proceedings of the American Academy. A.M. Jour. Sot.— Third Series, Vol. XI, No. 63.~Ma»ch, 1S76 170 L. Trouvelot— Veiled Solar Spots. it does under the envelope of the chromosphere, could be better seen through the thin veil formed by the greatly attenuated chromospheric gases. That the gases forming the chromosphere are sometimes thin enough to become transparent is a phenomenon which I have observed hundreds of times ; as is abundantly proved by the numerous drawings of protuberances which I have made at the Harvard Cbllege Observatory, in which the limb of the sun is seen through the base of the protuberances in front of it. In plate X, figure 3, there occurs a very striking instance, where two small prominences are seen through a large protuberance nearer the observer. During this period of general subsidence, the granulations appeared to be smaller and farther apart than usual, and conse- quently the light-gray colored background upon which they are seen projected was more distinct, as it occupied more space than formerly. During this period, the light -giving element would appear to have been less than usual. I am not aware that the phenomena of which I shall speak in this communication have been before observed; but I can- not speak positively on this point, owing perhaps to the some- what confused nomenclature of solar physics. Ever since I have observed the sun with instruments of a large aperture, I have noticed that the light-gray colored back- ground seen between the granulations is by no means uniform, as it is generally stated to be. On the contrary it is greatly and strikingly diversified. Aside from the very small black dots called "pores," patches of a darker grav are irregularly distributed all over the surface of the sun. But partly owing to the effect of perspective, and partly on account of the thicker strata of the chromospheric gases through which they are neces- sarily seen near the limb, they disappear gradually as they ap- proach the border. These dark spots have been so remarkable during the present year, and so conspicuous during the period of the greatest sub- sidence of the chromosphere, that I have availed myself of every favorable opportunity to study them. So strongly were they marked that when one had passed the field of view, it could be easily found again among many others, even after the lapse of several hours. Of the most striking and complicated, I have made sketches. In order to be able to count how many of these gray spots could be seen in different heliographic latitudes, and also to estimate their area with respect to the whole surface of the sun, Mr. W. A. Rogers, assistant at the Harvard College Observatory, kindly ruled for me on glass a reticule of small squares. Though the problem is apparently a simple L. Trouvelot— Veiled Solar Spots. 171 one, it nevertheless presented many difficulties ; partly owing to the minuteness and delicacy of these objects, partly on account of the unsteadiness of the atmosphere, and partly to the many defects caused by the great amount of heat concentrated at the focus of the objective. However, the observations show clearly that though the number of gray spots varies but very little in different latitudes, in general the spots become larger and more complicated as they approach the equatorial zones. The most marked characteristic of the gray spots is their vagueness of outline. They are never sharply defined like ordinary spots, but they appear blurred and diffused like an object seen through a mist. As I shall endeavor to show presently, these objects are really seen through chromospheric gases which are spread as a veil over them, causing this vague- ness of outline. For this reason, I propose for them the name of Veihd Solar Spots. The veiled solar spots, especially in the lower latitudes, have a remarkable tendency to assemble into small groups after the manner of ordinary spots. Sometimes three or four are seen in contact, while there are comparatively large intervals where none are to be seen. I have in several instances seen the actual formation into groups of distinct veiled spots. The granulations of the chromosphere are seen projected upon the veiled spots, just as anywhere else, but they are not there so regularly distributed; some being closely crowded together, while others are widely scattered. Small faculas are often formed in this manner by the aggregation of several granules into one mass. Once in a while the granulations appear as if they were under the power of a propelling force by which they arrange themselves in files, and sometimes in capricious "figures which are very remarkable. In many cases I have observed that the granulations pro- jected upon the veiled spots have an extraordinary mobility, to be seen nowhere else, except perhaps in the ^immediate vicinity of ordinary spots in full activity. Often their form and position are totallv changed within a few minutes, and some- times even within a few seconds. This was especially the case JuBe 21. At 8h 30"' on that day, I was observing a group of veiled spots not far from the center of the sun, when my atten- tion was drawn to the extraordinary mobility of the granulations covering this group. In an instant they changed their form and position, some crowding together as though briskly attract- ing each other, while others would fly apart as if repelled by an invisible force. Under this tumultuous conflict of forces, new veiled spots would appear and disappear in an instant, faculae would form and vanish ; in fact, all was in motion and confusion on that particular part of the sun. It was evident that immense forces were in conflict under the chromosphere. 172 L. Trouvelot— Veiled Solar Spots. At 2*» 0™ P. M., on the same day, several small black spots had opened through the chromosphere upon the group of veiled spots observed in the morning. At &" 0™ on the followmg morning, the group of small black spots was considerably increased, having quite a large spot on the preceding side, followed by twelve or fifteen smaller ones. On June 24, this group had attained to its maximum size. It was then very large and complicated. In fact, it was the largest group of sun spots observed thus far during the present year. On August 8, I noticed a group of veiled spots a little south of the sun's center. The following morning at 7^ 0'", there was at the same place a small group of half a dozen black spots disposed in a crescent shape. At 2i» 0'" P. M., the black spots had vanished, but the veiled spots still remained, having retained the characteiistic crescent form of the black spots and many other details observed in the morning ; and, as a proof that the chromosphere covered this spot, the granulations could he plainly seen upon the whole, indicating clearly that this spot was seen through the veil of the chromospheric gases. On August 24, the same phenomenon took place. Just fol- lowing the principal spot of the only group then to be seen on the surface of the sun, there was a fine group of veiled spots. The following day some black spots had made their appearance upon them. On August 27, the black spots had vanished, but in their place the veiled spots seen at first still remained, and they continued to be seen there for several days. To all appearances, the black spots which I had seen dis- appear under the chromospheric gases, and which continued as veiled spots, were exactly alike and undistinguishable from the many other veiled spots scattered all over the sun ; and, had I not seen the I could not 1 So far, I have only spoken of veiled spots observed in the zones where the ordinary sun spots usually make their appear- ance ; but, as I have said, the veiled spots are scattered all over the surface of the sun. During this period, I had many occasions to observe very remarkable and characteristic veiled spots in very high helio- graphic latitudes north and south. On July 15, within a few degrees of the north pole of the sun, I observed a remarkable veiled spot, unusually large and dark. Upon it were several bright slender facula3 projected in crest shape to very high altitudes. These faculse appeared to be precisely like those observed in lower latitudes near ordinary sun spots." Upon this veiled spot could unmistakably be seen" a small black spot, not a pore ; a real opening of both chromosphere and photosphere. L. Trouveht— Veiled Solar Spots. 173 On August 9, I observed another remarkable veiled spot within about 10° from the north pole, and upon it could be seen three small black spots. On August 13, at 11^ 0™, I observed a very dark veiled spot within 6° or 8° from the north pole. It had upon it a group of small faculae, so characteristic of the spots of lower latitudes. At # 30'" in the afternoon, this veiled spot was still darker, and upon it, near a facula, a pretty large black spot was visible. On August 24, I observed a remarkable veiled spot at about 75° south latitude. On September 6, another large group of veiled spots was seen within 10° or 15° of the north pole. At 10'' 20™, some faculae had formed upon it, and two black spots were distinctly visible. At b^ O'" in the afternoon, this group was still visible. ^ On September 8, within a few degrees of the north pole, I observed a fine group of two veiled spots, unusually dark and large, and near one of these spots there was a pretty large and bright facula. Ten minutes later the dark veiled spots had vanished, leaving in their place some bright faculae. One minute later the veiled spots began to reappear, but under another form, to disappear again the next moment. A little southwest from this last group, but in the same field of view, was another group of veiled spots apparently in full activity. Upon it three or four black spots were visible for some seconds. Upon these veiled spots the granulation had an extraordinary mobility ; so much so, that I expected at every moment to see a large spot make its appearance, but in less than a minute the veiled spots and the black spots had both vanished, and in their place were formed in an instant, some very bright faculse. To all appearances, the veiled spots seen in high latitudes difiFer but very little from the ordinary sun spots of the lower latitudes, except in regard to magnitude and activity. The diflFerence seems particularly to be that, in the first, the umbra, instead of being freed from the gases and vapors, is partly or wholly choked with them; while, besides, the chromosphere covers it. The forces which open the photosphere in high latitudes, it would seem, have not sufficient energy to repel or dissolve the chromospheric gases; or, if they have, it is in a very feeble degree, but, even then, the phenomenon is generally of short duration. Though I had no means of making accurate measurements of the positions of the spots seen in high latitudes, the error of ray estimation cannot be very great. In any case a few degrees would certainly cover it, and it remains a fact that I have ob- served spots at least within 10° of the north pole of the sun. The importance of this observation will appear when it is stated 174 L. Trouveht— Veiled Solar Spots. tliat very few spots have been observed outside of the zones lying 40° on either side of the equator. I know of but two instances on record in which spots have been observed beyond this limit. La Hire observed a spot 70° from the equator, and more recently, in the month of June, 1846, Dr. C. H. F. Peters observed at Naples a spot 60° from the equator. It is further to be remarked that accordinor to the conclusions of the English observers, the solar spots attain higher latitudes during the years of the maximum number of spots, and recede more and more towards the equator as the minimun is ap- proaching; and it is to be uoted that the present ^ear is pre- cisely, or at least very nearly, a minimum year. It is doubtless owing to the unusual thinness of the chromosphere during this period that spots have been observed in so high latitudes this year. It is true that the spots were small, but, neverthe- less, they were genuine spots, with all the characteristics of larger spots. It is difficult for one who has seen the phenomena which I have described, to come to any other conclusion than this: that the veiled spots are breaks or 'true openings in the photosphere, seen through the imperfectly transparent gases composing the chromosphere, openings themselves partly or wholly filled by the vapors ejected by the forces from the interior of the photo- sphere. If this hypothesis should prove to be the expression of a fact, then we should expect to find that the photosphere is perforated by thousands of crevasses either partly or entirely filled with the vapors and gases from the interior, which cannot be ejected outside for want of sufficient energy, save for a com- paratively very small number situated in the equatorial zones, where this energy appears maximum, and is able to repel and dissolve the gases from the interior. Before the observations of this year, I had arrived at pre- cisely the same conclusions in regard to the opening of the pho- tosphere in all latitudes, and to the existence of invisible spots concealed by the chromosphere. These conclusions were derived from my observations with the spectroscope, made at Harvard College observatory during a period of thirty-five months. A discussion of these observations is reserved for a future corn- Though one can hardly form a settled opinion with regard to the cause of the general depression of the chromosphere, on account of the imperfect data, it seems natural, however, to sup- pose that the phenomenon is connected in some way with the minimum period of sun spots. Judging by the great number of veiled spots observed, and by the myriads of pores seen between the granulations, it would seem that both the chromo- sphere and photosphere have been much thinner than usual during the present year. L. Trouvelot— Veiled Solar Spots. 175 If there are breaks in the photosphere at many points of the surface of the sun, it becomes easy to account for the unusual thinness of the chromosphere this year, because as observed by myself and others, at certain phases of the spots, the chromo- spheric gases, rushing with impetuosity into the umbra, go down under the photosphere like gigantic waterfalls, diminish- ing consequently the thickness of the chromosphere. That this takes place I shall give ample proof in another communica- It seems evident that the chromosphere near a spot is kept from falling into the opening by a force from the interior. As soon as this force decreases in energy, immediately the chro- mosphere tends to cover it, and even to precipitate itself through the opening when this force becomes extinct The observations show this plainly. ^ When a spot is decreasing, it is quite common to observe ■'""'^ i-u- ujQ}jj.g^ g^^(j penumbra a " ' through a heavy fall of snow, their surfaces hein penum ing c nded of bluish fog. Id a few instances of very rare definition, I have been surprised to see faint traces of this flocculent appearance upon almost all the spots ; indeed it would seem that the spots are rarely free from some faint traces of the chromospheric gases. Probably the bright flocculent objects observed upon the umbra and penumbra of spots, are the granulations of the chromosphere dissolved to a greater or less degree by the forces emanating from the spots. Perhaps it may not be idle to remark that, during the period mentioned, I have almost every day observed small groups of faculae in the polar regions, especially near the north pole of the sun ; while, for the most part, they have been entirely absent from the equatorial regions, where they are commonly found. To conclude, my observations show : 1. That during this year, and especially during the interval from June 1 to August 18, and to a less degree to September 14, the chromosphere has been notably thinner than usual upon the entire surface of the sun. 2. That the granulations have been smaller and less nu- merous. 3. That the light-gray colored background seen between the granules has been more conspicuous and has occupied more space than usual. 4. That there are spots, which I have named *' veiled spots," which are seen through the chromosphere which is spread over them like a veil. 5. That these veiled spots are true openings of the photo- sphere, like those of the ordinary spots. 176 E. Billings—Structure of Oboklla ch 6. That during this period these spots have been larger, darker, and more numerous than I have before seen them, 7. That the veiled spots are scattered throughout all lati- tudes, though more complicated in the regions where the ordi- nary spots make their appearance. 8. That I have observed spots at least within 10° of the north pole of the sun, 9. That the flocculent objects sometimes seen projected upon the umbra and penumbra of spots are the remaining portion of the granulations composing the chromosphere, more or less dis- solved by the forces emanating from the interior of the photo- sphere. Cambridge, October 1, 18t5. The genus Oboklla was founded in 1861 * on the following three species of Brachiopoda : 1. 0. chromatica, discovered by J. Richardson in 1861, at a place called "L'Anse au Loupj" on the north shore of the Straits of Belle Isle, in Labrador, \ Hall, from Troy, in the State of New York. 0.i>o^^Va Hall, from Wis' ' -Ventral valves. Theb I * \\ i^'ig. A. — Diagram snowing wi' f I tion of the scars in the dorsal ^ The specimens exhibited the internal characters very imper- fectly, yet enough was seen to convince me that the genus was a new one. During the fourteen years that have elapsed, I have received a number of letters, from both American and European authors, inquiring for more complete details of the structure of 0. chromalica, wHch has always been considered to be the type. This information I was unable to give, for want of the facts. We are now in possession of specimens showing the interiors of both valves, almost completely. The following are the characters as nearly as they can be made out : In the ventral valve there is a groove in the hinge line, for the passage of the pedicel. On each side of the groove there is a small, somewhat deeply excavated cardinal scar. In the cavity of the valve there are two elongated scars, which extend E. Billings — Structure of Oholella chromatica. 177 from near the cardinal scars forward about two-thirds of the length of the shell. These diverge from each other, more or less, in their extension forward, and are usually curved but sometimes nearly straight. They may be called laterals. They are. in general, separated from each other about one-third of the width of the shell. A little above the mid-length, and between the two laterals, there is a pair of small scars arranged transversely, with their inner extremities directed somewhat forward. The space above these two sears, between the upper portion of the laterals, is generally tumid from the thickening of the shell. In one of the specimens there is a small pit in the center of this space. The dorsal valve has a small area, or nearly flat hinge facet. The minute beak is slightly incurved over the edge of the area. Beneath the beak there is a small sub-angular ridge, on each side of which there is a cardinal ? scar. The elongated scars, which seem to correspond to the laterals of the ventral valve, are here altogether in the upper half of the shell. They diverge widely in their extension forward. They are in general very slightly impressed, and would, most probably, escape the observation of any one who did not expect to find scars where they are situated. In the cavity of the valve there is a low rounded median ridge, which extends from a point near the hinge line forward a little below the mid-length of the valve. About the middle of the shell there are two small scars. These are usually striated longitudinally. The median ridge passes between them. The area is coarsely striated. The above are the principal characters of this species, and they are subject to some variations, one of which is particularly worthy of notice. The two small cardinal scars of the dorsal valve are sometimes elongated laterally. This is carried to such an extent in another species {0. gemma) that they not only extend the whole length of the hinge-line, but are curved forward at their outer extremities and continued down into the cavity of the valve. In such cases they present an appearance similar to that of the groove beneath the hinge-line of the genus Oholellina. In other sDCcies of this genus the lateral scars of the dorsal valve are sometimes connected together by their upper extremities. But this is not a constant character. In different individuals, of the same species, these scars are either connected or not The laterals are also sometimes connected with the cardinals. The following are the original figures published in the Pale- ozoic Fossils, p. 7, (1861) : a I Fig. 4, o, Ventral valve; 6, dorsal; c, interior of jGk ^%. ilpk Itek ventral valve, showing the muscular impression ; d, out- ^^ ^m Ci\ W line on a side view, restored from detached valves. ^ ^ ^^ " Natural size. 178 J. D. Dana — Bamming of Streams hy drift ice In the description it is said : " Muscular impressions in the ventral valve, four; one pair in front of the beak, near the mid- dle or in the upper half of the shell." The pair here alluded to are the laterals. Their upper and lower extremities are some- times not visible, and what remains occupies the middle por- tion of the length of the shell. The expression "or in the upper half," I can thus explain: I had the dorsal valve of 0. crassa^ from Troy, which I then supposed to be a ventral valve. In this the laterals are in the " upper half." The trans- verse scars were not then observed and hence four scars instead of six. It must be borne in mind that fourteen years ago noth- ing was known of the internal characters of these shells. The materials were imperfect and consequently so was the descrip- tion. It is now certain that the genus is a good one and that all of the three species on which it was founded belonged to it The described species which I consider to be truly within the genus are : 0. chromatica, 0. polita, 0. crassa, 0. nana, and 0. gemma. They all, so far as is yet known, are confined to the Potsdam Epoch. A number of other species have been referred to the genus, but they are all more or less doubtful. The specimens which have furnished the above additional details of the structure of 0. chromatica were collected at L'Anse au Loup, the only place where the species has been found, in 1863, by T. C. Weston of our Survey, and by him very skilfully worked out of the matrix. Art. XXL— On the Damming of Streams hy drift ice during the melting of the great Glacier ; by J. D. Dana. When treating of the overflows of the flooded Connecticut, in the Supplementary December Number of this Journal, (p. 497,) I suggested, in view of the fact that the terraces in the Farmington Valley about Tarifville and Simsbury are at least 50 feet higher than those a mile eastward in the parallel Con- necticut valley — that the gorge through the Divide Range, by which the Farmington river there passes into the Connecticut valley, had been closed by drift and so remained until the flood had reached its height. I allude to this subject again to add that the events connected with the opening, in the Spring, of many of our modern ice- covered streams aiford abundant reason for believing that, during the breaking up of the long Glacial winter, when the ' y forward, the gaps, gorges or narrows, along 1 liable to obstruction by during the melting of the great Glacier. 179 (a) Such obstructions would have been of all grades, from that which could simply impede the free flow of the waters, to the nearly perfect dam. Q)) The obstructions in particular cases might have existed for a very long era, instead of for a few weeks such as hap- pens after a modern winter. (c) Again, the slackened or suspended flow of the water, caused by such ice-obstructions, would have favored the depo- sition and accumulation about them of drift, and some may have thus been converted into complete dams. This process might occasionally have wholly filled with earthy material a gorge or narrow valley, so as to block up and divert the course of the stream.— The well-known case of Niagara River may be an example of this. In view of these possible results, or rather these probable con- ditions of many river-valleys in the era of the Glacial flood, we are required to consider whether the height of the upper terraces ahove the narrows on the several rivers, — the Thames below Norwich, the Connecticut below Middletown, the Housatonic below Derby, Westfield River below Westfield, and Farmington River east of Tarifville — was not partly owing, in each case, to the existence of ice-obstructions at the narrows. It seems to be very probable that this was so. The height of modern spring floo(is in the Connecticut at Middletown and Hartford is now often due in part to this very cause. It appears to be certain, that if such obstructions existed in the Thames, Connecticut and Housatonic valleys, they were only partial obstructions ; for, in the case of each, the terrace of the valley below the narrows declines quite gradually in height from the level above the narrows, instead of abruptly. Had the waters been held back, up to the height of the high upper terrace, by a close dam, they would have fallen over the dam with a plunge to a lower level ; and this abrupt fall would have been registered by means of an abrupt fall in the level of the terrace. Instead of this, the terrrace on passing the narrows southward falls ofl" at a rate not exceeding 10 feet a mile, vary- ing in rate only with the varying width of the valley: a fact that seems to testify to the vastness of the flood as its cause, and not mainly to obstructions. Moreover, the material of the terraces below the narrows is like that above : prevalence of sands below and i naving the latter of greatei rapid flow of the stream along a narrower valley. Further evidence with reference to the existence of such ice- barriers is to be looked for in a distribution of gravel and large bowlders across the valley just above the gorge or narrows, where the ice-masses had been brought to a stop and piled together; 180 J. D. Dana—Damming of Streams hy drift ice. for imich of the floating ice would have been loaded with bowlders. I have as yet observed no satisfactory evidence of this kind, but think the question needs more investigation. Even if this evidence fails, we can hardly assert that no aid was afforded by ice in producing the great height of the flood-waters above the narrows, or doubt that ice-barriers made of drift ice had much to do with the height and extent of the upper ter- races in portions of many other valleys. There are two questions which should have here a word. 1. May not the obstructions or dams have been made by the Glacier itself? On this point we observe that the extent of the terrace formations along the valleys, — sometimes a score of miles in width even in New England— show that water swept in immense streams over the surface ; and thus they seem to prove that the glacier was already out of the lower part of the valleys, and hence too far away to have obstructed the flow except through the pieces set afloat by its dissolution. 2. Were not the dams due to rocky barriers at the narrows^ or to the non-excavation of the valley from the narrows southward f The features of the region about the narrows on each of the rivers mentioned, and of the valleys below, suggest decidedly that the valleys had nearly the same depth and extent then as now. The gradual decline in the height of the terrace on going from the narrows southward to the Sound shows that all was one valley, the part above the narrows and its continuation below. The terraces below the narrows, moreover, are built up in gen- eral from i\\Q present bottom of the valley, or from a lower depth, and this points to a depth for the valley as great as now or greater. It cannot be urged that the lower portions of the ter- races were made after the upper Wherever the hills on one side, at the narrows, retreat so as to give a chance for high ter- race deposits, there these deposits are usually found, and some- times the beds rise abruptly from the water's edge to the level of the highest terrace ; and on the Connecticut, in a place of this kind above Middle Haddam, the bottom layers are of clay — like the lower layers in much of the stratified drift on the river. In fact, the conditions of the terrace deposits of the valley, as well as the features of the valley itself, are explicable only on the view that the part of each valley below the narrows, like the rest of it, the narrows included, had been made before the Champlain period opened. The Glacial period was the era of valley excavation rather than the Champlain period. A. S. Kimball— Sliding Friction on an Inclined Plane. 181 Art. yi-Kll.— Sliding Friction . Kimball, Professor of Phy Institute of Industrial Scienct The following investigation was undertaken with a desire to demonstrate, if possible, by a laboratory experiment, that the law which affirms that the coefficient of sliding friction is con- stant for all velocities is not strictly true. Our results seem to establish the point, at least in the case of bodies sliding down an inclined plane. I am aware that the truth of this law has been questioned; indeed the opinion of made at the slide of Alpnach, that it would appear that friction is neither proportioned to the pressure nor independent of the velocity. Later observations made at the launching of the Raritan and the Princeton (Jour. Frank. Inst., 3d, VII, 108) showed that the coefficient of friction just before the vessel left the ways was much less than during the first five seconds of its motion. More recent still are the experiments of M. Bochet (Comptes Rendus, April 26, 1858,) upon the friction of railway carriages and brakes, which point to the same conclusion ; in- deed the author goes so far as to give the form of the function which expresses the variation of the coefficient of friction with the velocity, and gives approximate values to its constants for the case of railway trains. His formula is copied by Weisbach with a caution. Opposed to these views are the careful experiments of Coulomb and Morin, upon which books are founded. The apparatus used in our experiments was capable of giving very sharp and reliable i pme plank Wxl2"x2" was firmly placed a with the horizon and supported throughout by stout oeams. Upon this plank was a weight box with pine runners, having a bearing surface of 24 square inches. The cover of the box was about six feet in length, and upon it were placed slips of smoked glass. Firmly fixed above the glass, to an independent sup- port, was a verified tuning fork of 435 complete vibrations per second, carrying a style which lightly touched the glass surfiace beneath it. The weight box was supported in position at the upper end of the inclined plane by a cord fastened to a screw which served to give the box a very slow upward motion. At the proper time the screw was turned, the fork vibrated, the cord cut or burned off, and the box allowed to slide to the bot- toin of the plane. The style of the fork at the same time 182 A. S. Kimhall— Sliding Friction on an Inclined Plane, would trace iipon the smoked glass a waved line, which would ■ er of the experiment. The time point, the distance passed over of time, could all be measured or counted directly from the smoked glass. The graphical method of working up the experiment was employed, as follows: The bottom of a sheet of section paper was made a "time line" {^\^ of a sec.= a unit). At various points on this line the corresponding velocities were erected as ordinates. The equation of a line connecting the upper ex- tremities of these ordinates would express the law of the motion studied. It is evident that this line would have been straight if the acceleration of the slide had been uniform, like that of a body falling in vacuo. If, however, a variable resistance be opposed to the motion of the slide, the acceleration will no longer be uniform, and the line will become curved, concave toward the axis of abscissas, if the resistance is increasing, convex if the resistance diminishes. The acceleration of such a motion at any time will be proportional to the tangent of the angle which the direction of the curve at that point makes with the time line. It is also evident that such acceleration may at once be measured from the paper, since it is the difference between the velocities for two successive units of time. The curve constructed as above, from every experiment made, was decidedly convex toward the time line, showing a constantly decreasing resistance to the motion of the slide as the velocity increased. If we assume that this increase in acceleration was due to a dimin- ished coefficient of friction, the value of the coefficient for any time may be found in the following manner : Let a, h, and h= the altitude, base, and length of the inclined plane. W~ weight of the slide and contents. 'W'= normal pressure on the plane, = W.-j-. g— acceleration of a body falling freely. g'= theoretical acceleration of the slide =g-jr- g"= the observed acceleration at any time. Then the resistance of friction =F= —{g'-g")^ and the co- efficient of friction. ^= Z, = /^' . i = (J_^)| = X j= tangent of inclination— — ^. ^ gb ^ gb The following tables give the results obtained from a series A. S. Kimball — Sliding Friction on an Inclined Plane. 183 of four experiments. The load in every case was 40 lbs. The inclinations of the plane were as follows: No. 1 =15° 6', No. 2 =16° 9', No. 3 =17° 5'. No. 4 =18° 9'. Table A shows the accelerations corresponding to different velocities in the four experiments. The units used are the Y^Vo of an inch and the j^-g of a second. Table B shows the coefficients of friction in each experiment, deduced by substituting the observed accelerations given in Table A in the formula given above. The observed accelera- tions were of course reduced to feet in a second. From the tables it will be observed : 1st. That with a given inclination of the plane, the coefficient of friction decreases as 184 A. S. Kimball— Siding Friction on an Inclined Plane. the velocity increases, rapidly at first but more slowly after- ward. 2d. With the same velocity, the coefficient of friction is greater the greater the inclination of the plane, within the limits of the experiments. Sd. The coefficient of friction in each experiment tends toward a constant quantity. 4th. This constant seems to be the same in each experiment. No simple expression which will show the variations in the coefficient of friction has yet been found ; indeed, I have not thought best to attempt to formulate the work till certain errors, which will be referred to, have been corrected. It was found impossible to procure a plank with a perfectly uniform surface. The one used in the experiments given showed at the same inclination and velocity a coefficient which slightly but regularly increased from one end to the other. The end which gave the lower coefficient was placed uppermost. ^ The obvious result of this was to make the coefficients in Table B at high velocities greater than they otherwise would have been. This fac.t also explains the apparent anomaly in columns 3 and 4 of the same table, where the coefficients at high velocities are seen to fall below the corresponding coefficients iu col- In experiment 4 the slide had the velocity 120 at a distance of 40 inches from the upper end of the plane ; in experiment 2 it did not acquire that velocity until it had passed over a dis- tance of 60 inches, and consequently was on a rougher portion of the plane. The uniformity of the plane was tested by start- ing the slide at different points along its length, and comparing the curves on the smoked glass. These experiments have not been corrected for the resistance of the atmosphere. The effect of such a correction would be to diminish still more the coefficients at high velocities. As the inclination of the plane increases the normal pressure decreases. Thinking that this change of pressure might explain a pan of the difference due to a change of inclinations, we made three experiments at the same inclination, with weights of 18, 80 and 140 lbs., in the box. At the end of one second we found the velocities in the three cases to be as 1, I'lS and 1"32, showing a less resistance in the case of the greater load, and corresponding to a decrease of about 2^ per cent in the coefficient of friction. This seems to be insufficient to explain the change in the coefficient when the inclination of the plane is changed. But it is interesting as showing that in the case of pine on pine friction is not strictly proportional to the nor- mal pressure. As soon as possible we propose to repeat these experiments, extending the range of velocities, also to try the effect of a change of pressure, with a view to formulate deviations from J. W. Mallet— Constitutional formulae of Urea, etc. 185 the received laws, if simple ex have also designed a modifical results when a uniform motion is given to the slide. The experiments in the series (nearly 100 in number) and a greater part of the computations have been verj carefully made by Messrs. Butterfleld and Wilson, students in the department of Physics. Art. XXIII.— On the constitutional formulm of Urea, Uric Acid, and their derivatives ; by Professor J. W. Mallet, University of Virginia. Few classes of organic compounds have given rise to more difference of opinion amongst chemists than that which includes urea and its conjugates. The remarkable number of such compounds, their compli- cated relationships, the varied circumstances of their production and decomposition, and their variety of chemical character, have led to nearly every one of them being viewed in several different lights, and represented by several different formulas, by those who have given the subject special attention. The structure of the simple molecule of urea itself is by no means settled. The arguments of Heintz* and Kolbef in favor of the view that urea is identical with carbamide (H^N— CO — NHg) have been opposed by the observation of Wanklyn and Gramgeeij: as to the behavior of urea (unlike that of admitted amides) when oxidized by an alkaline solution of potassium per-manganate. The latter chemists proposed the formula ((nhI- C { NH„, but, as Watts remarks in his Dictionary of Chem- , (OH istry,§ without assigning specific reasons (other than the dif- proposed ference of behavior just noted) for adopting this instead of the carbamide formula which they reject. Wolcott Gibbs j inde- pendently put forward the same view, but did give some of the ' 1 upon which it was adopted by him. It has also been present urea as 0-C=NH,— NH„ in which I the nitrogen atoms is pentad. Most recent writers of text-books, however, as Fittigt and Naquet,** seem to have fallen back upon the view that urea is simply carb- * Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm., cxl, 216 ; cl, 73. f Zeitsehr. fiir Chem., II, iii, 50. iJour. Chem. Soc, Jan., 1868, 31. § Ist Suppl., 1115. Amer. Jour. Sci., II, xlvi, 290, Nov., 1868. WoHer's Grundriss der org. Chem., 8te. Aufl., 206. Principes de Chimie, trois^me ed., t. ii, 532-533. Am. Jour. Sci.-Thikd Series, Vol. XI. No. 63.-Majich, 1876. 186 J. W. Mallet— Constitutional formulxz of Urea, amide. Bunte* has suggested as the means of deciding between these opinions the determination of the maximum number of isomeric products obtainable from the body in question bj substituting an alcoholic radical for hydrogen. The most obvious point of difference between the three for- mulae above mentioned consists in the first being symmetrical while the others are not so. If urea be carbonic diamide (I), Lo the two nitrogen atoms are placed exactlv alike, and so are the four atoms of hydrogen. If the third formula (2) be adopted, the two nitrogen atoms will be unlike, while there will be two pairs of hydrogen atoms with no difference between the mem- bers of each pair. But if the formula (3) be the true one, the two nitrogen atoms, while exhibiting the same atomicity, are dissimilarly connected, and hydrogen is found in three different relations to the rest of the molecule, only two atoms of the lat- ter element being quite alike in position. Clearly we should the rather expect from this highly unsymmetrical disposition of the atoms such a number and varietv of substituted and onjugated products as urea actually affords. But not only does this last view enable us for the large class of derivatives furnished by the^substance i question, but it seems to lend itself remarkably well to the explanation of the special character which these derivatives severally exliibit, whereas many of the formulae hitherto pro- posed for the " ureides" differ niuch from those of other bodies of the same type, the acid or basic character, degree of basicity, etc., not being satisfactorily accounted for. In this respect Wanklyn, Gamgee and Gibbs seem scarcely to have done justice to the merits of the formula they suggested, and I pro- pose by a few examples of the better known substances related to urea to illustrate the advantages of assuming for it this molecular constitution. In doing so I have to suggest a struc- tural composition for most of the conjugated bodies spoken of unlike that which Gibbs has adopted in the paper above referred to. It will conduce somewhat to clearness to iise fully expanded graphic formulae, and for the conjugated compounds * Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm., cli, 184. Uric Acid, and their derivatives. 187 to use dotted lines to represent the bonds connecting residues derived from different molecules.* Let then urea be represented by the last formula, No. 3, derivable from ammonium cyanate by mtermolecular transposition, and from ammonium carb- amate by change of the same sort with elimination of water. In both cases (me of the two nitrogen atoms shows the usual tendency to revert from pentad to triad character by elevation of temperature. The direct compounds of urea (like those of ammonia) with acids involve a re-assumption of pentad relation by this one atom of nitrogen ; not by both, as we might expect if they were alike in position in the molecule ; as, for instance, in the i Similar relations ar for instance raercu chloride. ' e entered into with some metallic oxides, ric oxide, and certain salts, as with sodiu 1. Ethyl-urea (basic). 2. Normal di-ethyl-urea (basic). HHH HHH HHH H-C_H H-C-H H-O-H 0-H C-O-H not for (iifflculty on the part of the printer 188 J. W. Mallet— Constitutional formuloe of Urea, Products of substitution Tdv alcoholic radicals, in which the urea type and character are 'preserved, are exemplified by e\hy\- urea, CgH^N^O, in which one of the two similarly related hydrogen atoms is replaced, and by normal di-ethyl-urea, CjH, 2N3O, in which the replacement extends to both of these atoms. One hydrogen atom of this pair and another (unlike) atom at the same time are probably replaced in the isomeric di-ethyl-urea, and tri-ethyl-urea, if this compound really exist, will represent the replacement of both the similar and one un- symmetric (probably imide) atom of hydrogen. Formulae for condensed ureas containing polyatomic radi- cals, such as ethylene, follow easily enough from the above. In biuret, CaH.NjOg, we may suppose the residues of two urea molecules united" with elimination of ammonia from unlike (amidic and imidic) extremities of the chain of atoms — ic, uniting (by its amidic end probably) with one equivalent of HCl). Lo-H this giving a very obvious explanation of the formation of biuret by heating urea, ammonia being at the same time liberated. Conjugated compounds of urea residues and acid radicals form a more numerous class. In these the type of the original acid seems usually to predominate, but the urea residue modifies the character of the substance in different ways according to the mode of attachment This last point seems to have been the chief one overlooked in the arrangement of most of the struc- tural formulsB hitherto proposed. Thus, from carbonic acid, CHaO, (di-basic), we get allo- phanicacid, C,H,J^,03, Carbonic acid (dibasic). Allophanic add (monobasic). Uric Acid^ and their derivatives. thus viewed with the above formula for biuret will show how the latter is produced by the action of ammonia upon ethyl allophanate. From acetic acid, C^H^Oa, we have acetyl-urea, CgHgNaOa (exhibiting neither acid nor basic character), Acetic acid (monobasic). Acetyl-urea. H H— N— H .-U LO-H u U H— C— C the one basic atom of hydrogen of the original acid having been replaced by the urea residue at its imide extremity. ^ I glycollic acid, C,: " ^ nd, Glycollic acid (monobasic). Grlycoluric acid (monobasic). H-U have glycol uric (hydantoic) ■N— H U the urea residue replacing the methylic hydroxy 1, while th ongmal oxatyl remains unaffected and the acid character : preserved. In the formula for glycoluric acid proposed b Gibbs, viz: (misprinted in his paper in the transposition < the — and = in the bottom line) : Glycolui =107(^^1 = 110° 85' samarskite), i-l^p^=U&'' (135° 46' samarskite). The method of association of crystals of samarskite and columbite at Miask (to be mentioned later) seems to suggest that the broad plane, i-i of the figure, may possibly correspond to the plane i-% of columbite. (To avoid confusion it must be noticed that ^-^ columbite, Dana's Mineralogy = ^■-^ Naumann, and 7 Dana = i-s Naumann.) This idea is supported by a sin- gle one of the specimens under examination, where of two asso- ciated crystals, the cleavage plane (probably i-i) of the colum- bite was exactly parallel with the plane of the samarskite called t-i above. If now this change is made, the planes, before men- tioned, become as follows: If i-^2=I and i-l=i-l then I=i-\ 1=1-2, 3-f = 2-|. The consideration of all the facts, however, seems to show that the method first proposed should be adopted. It may also be mentioned here that several of the minerals of this group show angles of 91°-95°, 128^ etc., in the prismatic zone, although in the other zones there is no apparent corre- spondence, and the habit is quite different The occurrence of two other minerals of this tantalic group has already been mentioned. One of these minerals occurs in regular octahedrons, sometimes nearly an inch across, with the 204 E. H. Jenkins — Effect of Silicic Acid upon the cubic planes, and also the form 3-3. It has a jellowish-brown color and resinous luster. Professor Brush reports, from his examination, that in blowpipe characters it agrees closely with pyrochlore ; but its specific gravity as determined by him on a pure crystal is 4-794, which is considerably higher than that of pyrochlore (4-203, Hermann), so that it may approach more nearly to microlite. For a definite knowledge of its character we must consequently wait for the chemical analysis which Professor Allen proposes soon to undertake. These octahe- drons occur generally in a rusty gangue, the mass of which seems to consist mostly of the same mineral. They are also sometimes observed implanted directly upon the samarskite. The second associated mineral is columhite. It occurs in crystal- line masses of considerable size, imbedded in the samarskite, or implanted upon it The form where distinct is very similar to those given in Dana's Mineralogy, figures 429, 430, p. 516, and the angles agree closely. From some qualitative experiments Professor Allen finds that it contains a considerable quantity of tantalic acid. On this account it is a matter of some surprise that its specific gravity is only 5*476. This intimate association of columbite and samarskite at this locality is the more interesting in that, as long ago shown by Hermann, these two species occur together at Miask in the Urals. Some Uralian specimens recently examined by me have the minute crystals of columbite, well formed, implanted on the samarskite, the crystals of the two appearing to occupy a parallel position. It would here hardly be suspected that the two min- erals were distinct, except from the cross fracture, in which the two decidedly differ. The American specimens, on the other hand, with the single exception alluded to, show no relation at " I the position of the crystals of the 1 Art. XXVIL— TAe Effect of Silicic Acid upon the Estimation of Phosphoric Acid hy Ammonium Molyhdate ; by E. H. Jenkins. The idea seems to be general that the presence of silicic acid in solutions, impairs the accuracy of the estimation of phosphoric acid by the molybdic method. In Rose's Hand- buch der Analytischen Chemie, 6th edition, volume ii, page 519, under a description of this method the fact is stated that silicic acid gives a precipitate similar to the ammonium nation of Phosphoric Acid by Ammonium Molyhdate. 205 phospho-molybdate, and Presenius (Quantitative Analyse, 5tli edition, page 33-4) advises the separation of silicic acid as a preliminary. W. Knop has observed (Chemisches Centralblatt, 1857, page 691) that ammonium molybdate, added to a solu- tion containing silicic acid and a large quantity of ammonium chloride, produces a lemon yellow precipitate much like ammo- ' ' ' Without this excess of ammonium L the cold or after heating to boiling. " It might readily be supposed, however, that, though not precipitated by itself with ammonium molybdate, silicic acid could come down in a precipitate of ammonium phospho- molybdate and introduce an error. To ascertain whether this actually happens the following experiments have been made. A solution of potassium silicate was employed, made by boil- ing pure silicic acid with potassium hydrate, and acidifying slightly with nitric acid. It contained in 50 c,c. •2055 grs. of silicic acid, and bare traces of phosphoric acid. A solution of pure hydrodisodic phosphate was prepared, and the phosphoric acid estimated by the ammonium molybdate method. 25 c.c. gave (1) -0844 MgaPgO, = -05398 PgO^ Estimations of phosphoric acid were made in varied quanti- ties of tbe solution of sodium phosphate with the addition of potassium silicate, by the molybdic method. The amounts of the solutions employed and the results ob- tained are given below. •0492 SiO^ -f-lcc. sodic phosphates -0022 P2O5 gave -0023 PgOj •0492 " -)-5 « =-0108 '' " -0114 " ■0492 " -I-12-5 " —-0270 " " '0267 " •0123 « 4-25 " =-0540 " " '0540 " •0246 " +25 " =-0540 " " '0545 " •0492 " -1-25 " == -0540 " " '0544 " •2055 « -1-25 " z=:-0540 " " '0538 " •2055 " ^ •5000 CaSO^ I •2000 MgO i +25 " == -0540 " " ^0544 " •5000 Fe^O, I 1-0000 Alum J A solution of tricalcic phosphate in nitric acid containing in 50 c.c. -0379 grs. P^O, gave with -310.0 SiO, '0381 grs. P^O^ The ammonium molybdate and magnesium chloride solu- tions used in these determinations were made as recommended 206 T. B. Brooks — Youngest Huronian Rocks. by Abesser, Jani and Marcker in their paper on the f phospho nd all th< paper I ! results show that i ration of silicic acid neces the estimation of pbosphoricacid by the raolybdic method. Prof. Kolbe'a LabOTatory, Leipzig, Dea 17, ISYS. Art. XXVIIL— (9ri the youngest Huronian Rocks smith of Lake Superior and the age of the Copper -bearing Series ; by T. B. Brooks. In the sammer of 1874, Chas. E. Wright and myself, while exploring the country west and south of the Menominee River about ninety miles from its mouth, under the auspices of the Wisconsin Geological Survey, observed a lai^e granitic area, the north edge of which was bounded by dark-colored horn- blendic and micaceous schists of Huronian age, which I have since concluded are the equivalents of the youngest member of that series yet observed in the Marquette Iron B^gion.* The prevailing form was a medium to c with rectangular crystalline facets passed through gneissoid granite t( once hornblendic, the schistose struc formed with the underlying schists. The lithological character of this wide granitic belt bore so much general resemblance to the Laurentian rocks, which are extensively developed on the waters of the Sturgeon Eiver in Michigan, 10 to 20 miles to the northeast, that we were dis- posed at the time to believe that some phenomena of folding or faulting had brought rocks belonging to that system to the sur- face in an unexpected quarter. Professor Pumpelly and my- self, several years previously had observed, farther to the north and west, similar granitic rocks crossing the Michigamme and Paint Rivers (branches of the Menominee), presenting similar puzzling relations with beds known to be Huronian. This for- mation is noticed in my Michigan Report, vol. i, p. 175, and the probability of its being Huronian, and younger as well as lithologically different from any rocks then known to be of that period, is pointed out.:}: 130, Michigan Geological Report. t A few smaU granite dykes we along the granite border. % It is not improbable that son Lake in the Marquette Region, may belong to t] T. B. Brooks— Youngest Huronian Bocks. 207 A careful consideration of all the facts to be observed in the Menominee Eegion confirms me in this hypothesis,* which is further supported, as it seems to me, by observations in the Penokie Iron Eegion (Bad River), Wisconsin. Colonel Whittlesey's maps and sections, given in Owen's Re- port, 1852, represent a belt of granite, syenite, and hornblende rocks as dividing the Penokie series ( Huronian ) from the over- lying Copper-bearing amygdaloidal traps and sandstones, which lie to the north and nearer the lake. I observed these rocks at several points in 1871, and noted their general lithological resemblance to the Laurentian, as well as the almost insurmountable structural difficulties in assigning to them that age, and recorded in my notes the probability of their being Upper Huronian. Rowland Irving mentions these rocksf as being coarsely crystalline aggregates " chiefly of lab- radorite and orthoclase feldspar, hornblende, and some variety of pyroxene," with occasional evidences of bedding, which points toward their entire conformability with the underlying Huro- nian. He regards them as of the period of the Copper-bearing series, constituting its lowest and oldest portion. Having been, so far as I know, but little studied, it is perhaps impossible at this time to determine their age : but what is known can here be briefly surveyed, and an inference drawn, which will not be without value in directing further investiga- 1 The general lithological similarity of this granitoid belt to the Laurentian, has been remarked. It has quite as much similarity, if not more, to several members of the Huronian ; and is, I believe, not identical with any rock known to belong to the Copper seriea 2. Its geographical extension is peculiar in this : it wedges out rapidly to the east from the vicinity of Penokie Gap, en- tirely disappearing at the Montreal River, which divides Mich- igan from Wisconsin. Professor Pumpelly and myself traced the boundary between the Copper and Huronian rocks 30 miles farther eastward beyond Lake Gogebic, without again observ- ing it, which we should certainly have done if it had existed there ; for we often found the two series very near together, al- though the actual contact was not seen. * Dr. H. Credner regarded the lowest member (a quartzyte) of »orae out, as it seems to me, by the facts. He seems to have based this ge nc reasoning largely on a rough section which I sketched for him ( and wh has reproduced ) of the Negaunee District, where the Upper Huronian, so w veloped at Michigamme Lake, is wanting. His great overestimate of the ness of the Menominee rocks has also led him astray. (See Zeitschrif t d«r deu geologischen Geseilschaft, Band xxi, 1867, p. 553.) No attempt was m my Michigan Report to corrfllaiA the Marauette and Menominee series, eacl provisionaUy numbere Sbrtes-Vol. XI, No. 63.-Mabch, 1876. 218 Scientific IntelUgmce. carbon disiilphide, slightly soluble in water. It acts like a weak acid, the ammonia salt crystallizing in needles. By reducing agents it is converted into hydro-rosolie acid, and by KCy into hydro-cyan-rosolic acid. Acid^ alkali sulphites dissolve it to a col- orless solution. Oxidizing agents convert it into a minium-red substance. By heating with acetic oxide no acetyl-derivatives are produced. Warmed in alkaline solution with zinc dust, leuco- rosolic acid is obtained in colorless silky crystals. This yields a triacetyl derivative. Triacetyl-hydrocyan-rosolic acid, tetrabrom- rosolic acid, tetrabromleucorosolic acid and hydrocyantetrabrom- rosolic acid are described, and the analogy of this body to the phtha- leins in this respect is noted. — Liebig's Ann., clxxix, 184, Nov., 1875. G. F. B. _ 6. On the Synthesis of Betaine. — Betaine (or oxyneurine as it is also called) is known to be a tri-methylated glycocoU, Griess has succeeded in effecting a new synthesis of it by acting on an alkaline sokition of glycocoU with methyl iodide. The glycocoU (one atom) is dissolved in an excess of concentrated potassium hydrate soluticm, the methyl iodide (three atoms or more) is added, and as much methyl alcohol as is needed to make a homo- geneous mixture. Soon a reaction sets in, the mixture becomes acid and alkali must be added. The liquid is neutralized with hydriodic acid, the methyl alcohol distilled off, the residue diluted and a solution of iodine in hydriodic acid added. On standing, blackish-brown brilliant needles of betaine periodide separate. These suspended in water and treated with HgS afford pure betaine hydriodate, from which the other salts and the free base can be easily prepared.— ^en Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 1406, Nov., 1875. G. F. B. 7. A Rem Acid i have discovered in London an acid of the formula Cj^HgO^, isomeric not only ^ alizarin itself but also with anthraflavic acid. From alcohol it crystallizes in long brownish-yellow needles. It is soluble in baryta water with a dai-k red color, but possesses no coloring propei-ties. The authors are engaged in studying it more thor- oughly.— ^er. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 1628, Jan., 1876. g. f. b. 8. 0?i the Constit'ution of Acids and ;SWte.— Beethklot has given a resume of his results obtained by a thermo-chemical in- vestigation of the composition of acids and salts when in solution, which affords a ready method for their classification. According to his experiments, the relative energy of acids and bases may be measured by the inequality of decomposition of their salts by water, added in gradually increasing amount ; this decoa being indicated by the amount of heat absorbed or Thus in the first class are placed strong acids and bases. These, when dissolved separately in water and mixed in equal equiva- lents, form stable neutral salts, and set free a quantity of heat nearly constant for all the bodies of this class, and which does not vary when more water is added, nor by the addition of more of Chemistry and Physics. 219 the same or of another base. To this class belong the chlorides, nitrates, and normal sulphates of the fixed alkalies. In the second class of acids and bases, Berthelot places those which are decom- posed by water progressively, the decomposition increasing with either indefinitely, or possessing a definite limit. To this class belong borates, carbonates, cyanides, sulphides, alkali phenates, acetates, butyrates and valerianates. Sometimes the decomposi- tion takes placed in its entirety by the first portion of water added; so that the thermometer shows an absoi-ption of heat nearly equal to that which is evolved in the original formation of the salt. Such are the salts formed by the alkalies with alcohol, glycerin, mannite, etc. Of course the decomposition by water is the more marked when the base is also feeble, like the oxides of the heavy metals. In this case, the decomposition is apparent even with acids of the first class. Even strong acids are thus decomposed, though when the acid is weak. The author draws the c solution, strong acids always unite with strong bases, leaving the feebler membere to each other. To account for the stability of the alkali-salts of strong acids, he supposes that the formation of definite hydrates by the union of water with the acid and the base, taken separatelv, under the conditions of the experiment, sets free a total amount of heat which is less than that evolved in the for- mation of the normal salt itself. So, reciprocally, if the alkali-salts of feeble acids are decomposed by water, the reason is to be found in the excess of the thermic efiects due to the formation of hydrates over those which result from the formation of the normal salt. Several of the many important considerations which flow from this hypothesis are given at length in the paper.— C E., Ixxxi, 844, Nov., 1875. G. F. b. 9. Division of an Acid among several Bases.— M. Biorthklot has endeavored to solve the question whether, if an acid is present with several bases, it will unite with one, or be divided among them. Berthollet believed that each base would take an amount of thef •" - - ty; f( ^ Tersely as its equivalent: or, if the , . amounts proportional to their atomic weights, each would take half the acid. Gay Lussac believed that a complete mixture took place, and that the salts were formed only when separated by their insolubility, crystallization or volatility. To test these views, two bases were selected which disengaged an unequal amount of heat in uniting with the same acid. Thus mixtures of equivalent weights of chloride of ammonium and caustic soda were mixed. The difference in this case of the two bases would equal 1-12 units of heat. Were the theory of Berthollet correct, half of the acid should go to the soda 'setting free -56 units of lieat. Other divisions of the acid might set free any quantity from to M2. According to Gay Lussac there should be no 220 Scientific Intelligence. generation of heat, or at least the amount should be uncertain. Finally, if all the acid passed over to the soda, the amount of heat set free should be 1-12. The amount actually observed equalled 1*07, which as the probable error is ±-04, evidently sen- sibly equals 1-12. The very small difference of -05 is also ex- plained by the purely physical action exercised by ammonia on a solution of chloride of sodium. In fact a mixture of the same quantities of ammonia water and chloride of sodium absorbs -05 units of heat. Similar effects are also obtained by replacing the chloride by the nitrate or sulphate, or by using potash instead of soda, Not only can ammonia be replaced by soluble bases such as potash or soda, but even by those which are insoluble, such as lime. According to Berthollet there should be a division at first, then a precipitation of the lime, and so on until it was wholly separated. But this effect is not produced, the lime is not pre- cipitated but dissolved in the chloride of ammonium. To deter- mine the real nature of the reaction a certain amount of lime was precipitated from the chloride by soda; 1-18 units of heat were thus absorbed. It was then dissolved by chloride of 5 of heat the solution heat were disengaged. But in the latter opera- of the hydrate of lime by the ammonia should ts of heat; and the redissolving of the lime should give out 1-10, or in all 2*20, which agrees closely with 2"24, the observed amount. Again, the total heat set free, — .l-18+2"24 = 1-06 is very nearly equal to VOI, the amount set free in the previous experiment by the direct action of the soda on the chlo- " " . -^ ^ ^ ^ YtYove that the double t the cause of the pbe- i ; while they are completely explained by the complete ubstitution of the lime, a nearly insoluble base, by the ammonia, I soluble base. We see therefore that this substitution may take >lace contrary to the laws of Berthollet.— ^ww. Chim. et Phys., Pyrheliometer.—M.. A. Cbova has measured the cal- orific intensity of the solar radiation and its absorption by the atmosphere of the earth. With the pyrheliometer of Pouillet it appeared that the indications varied with the method of preparing the surface. If the silvered chamber containing the water is sim- ply covered with one or more coatings of lampblack, a portion of the heat after passing through the coating is reflected by the metal and thence passes out through the lampblack which is •a. layer ui puixiuum DiacK. A large cnermomeier naviug a "u\" 40 mm. in diameter and a tube 300 mm. long replaces the ordi- nary silvered box. The bulb is covered with silver, copper, plati- num, and finally with a thin coating of lampblack. The tube Chemistry and Physics. 221 introduced into a hollow brass sphere polished without and black- ened within, and having an aperture 30 mm. in diameter through which the sun's rays penetrate. The observation of the heating after numerous corrections gives with great delicacy the relative heat of the sun at different times. — Gomptes Rendus^ Ixxxi, 1205. U. Thermal Eqnwaleyit of Magnetism.— M. A. Cazin has pub- lished in full a series of experiments on the relations of heat and magnetism. In the first portion of the memoir three methods are described of measuring the relative values of the heat created by the disappearance of magnetism, in the core of an electro-magnet. The second section demonstrates several laws of the magnetic heat developed, and shows that this heat is really due to the dis- appearance oi' the magnetism. But in the induction of the core on the coil, and of the coil on itself, causes of heat are found which should be allowed for. The fundamental law deduced from these experiments is, that the disappearance of magnetism in the core of a bar electro-magnet having two poles is accom- panied by the creation of a quantity of heat Q proportional to the polar interval /, and to the square of the quantity of temporary magnetism m which the core acquires when the circuit is closed. ^- will be the mechanical equivalent of heat. In the third s ~Q~ tion the value of Q is determined in units of heat while the effects of induction are inconsiderable. The first series gave as a mean of five experiments while the spark was broken in all 110600000, as the magnetic equivalent. A second more reliable series with the spark broken in ether gave 106000000. Both are a little too great because the induced current on breaking the circuit is not zero. Hence, probably the true value does not differ materially from 100000000.— .4w?i. Chim. et Phys., vi, 493-554. e. c. p. 12 ~ ing c __^ ^ ^ . that the charge given to a Leyden jar shall not exceed any fix limit. Through a cork in the upper end of a bell-glass passes a brass rod, insulated through its entire length by a glass tube, through which it passes freely. To the upper end is attached a brass knob, and the lower end is pointed and provided with a screw thread, so that it can be set at any distance within, or through, a hollow brass ball, perforated below and rigidly fixed to the glass tube. Within the bell-glass is a loose cage of perfor- "*"""' • - - ntaining strong sulphu '- "" '*^" .„ „„ ,„„ „ .„j rod be screwed down that the point projects through the hollow ball, the upper knob and the lower metallic plate being connected with the two poles of a Holtz machine, only short sparks can be obtained, because a large amount of electricity escapes at the point ; but if the rod 222 Scientific Intelligence. be raised so that it barely enters the hollow ball at the top, r escape takes place from it, and the machine will gi%'e its fu length of spark. By varying the position between these two limits, any required length of spark or amount of charge -Leyden jar - ' itei-posed Leyden jar can be obtained.- 13. Eeport to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow on the Pro- duction of Nitric acid from the free Nitrogen of the air. Part I. By E. M. Dixon. 18 pp. 8vo. Glasgow, 1875.— The author first discusses the researches connected with ozone made by Schonbein, Marignac, De La Rive, Baumert, Prof. Andrews of Belfast, and others, and states, as the accepted conclusion, that ozone is the only allotropic form of oxygen, in other words that antozone has no existence. The report then considers the production of nitric acid through the agency of ozone ; four alleged methods of which are mentioned, viz. : (1) by contact of nitrogen or the atmosphere with bodies undergoing oxidation ; (2) during electrical discharges in the air; (3) the combining of ozone with nitrogen in the pres- ence of water; (4) through the evaporation and condensation of water in the air. The consideration of nitrification by the fipt method' is pronounced to be as yet doubtful, but the consideration of it is deferred to the second part of the report. With regard to the second and third methods, it states that there is clear proof of the fact that the electric spark is capable of effecting the com- bination of oxygen and nitrogen in a dry mixture of these gases ; but that there is little or no doubt that nitiification does not occur in nature from the action of ozone upon the nitrogen of the air ; and that the production of peroxide of hydrogen in nature, as shown by Engler, Nasse, Carius, Schone, must be ascribed to some other cause than the action of ozone upon either aqueous vapor alone, or upon it and nitrogen together. Upon the fourth method, the report remarks as follows : " In 1862 Schonbein announced the fact that, if water is partially evaporated in the air, the residue contains nitrite of ammonia, and that the same salt is to be found in the water formed by the con- densation of vapor in air. Of these facts there is no doubt. Schonbein, however, without ascertaining whether the salt in question did not exist ready formed in the air employed in his experiments, rushed to the conclusion that it must have been formed during these experiments, by the combination of free nitrogen with water. Obvious as the precaution indicated now seems to be, it must also be said that it does not appear to have occurred at the same time to any one else ; and some, while ac- cepting Schonbein's explanation of the production of nitrite of ammonia from free nitrogen and water, even thought to contest his claim to all the merit of having discovered so remarkable a property in free nitrogen. The following quotation from a re- cently published volume, by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, entitled Chem- ical and Geological Essays, will show that he still claims a con- siderable amount of credit for having predicted, on theoretical Chemistry and Physics. , the possibil nitrE '"On September 15, 1862, I read before the French Academy of Sciences a note on The Nature of Nitrogen, and the Theory of Nitrification, published in the Comptes Rendus of that date, and translated in the Philosophical Magazine for January, 1863, in which I repeated the points above given, and then proceeded to consider the results announced bjr Schonbein in 1862. I said, "The formation of nitrite of ammonia by the combination of nitryl NN with H^ O 2 must necessarily be limited to very minute quantities by the instability of this ammoniacal salt which, as is well known, decomposes readily into nitrogen and water. In order, therefore, to produce any considerable quantity of a nitrite by this reaction, there is required the presence of active oxygen, or of to separate the ammonia. The recent experiments ' have furnished new evidences of the direct formation of a at the expense of the nitrogen of the atmosphere. According to him, when sheets of paper moistened with a feeble solution of an alkali, or an alkaline carbonate, are exposed to the air, especially in the presence of a watery vapor, and at a temperature of 50° or 60° C, the alkaline base soon fixes a sufficient quantity of nitrous acid to give the characteristic reactions. Appreciable traces of nitrite are, according to Schonbein, obtained in this way, even without the intervention of an alkali. He, moreover, found that distilled water, mixed with a little potash or sulphuric acid, and evaporated slowly at a temperature of about 50° C. in the open air, fixes in one ease a small portion of ammonia, and in the other a little nitrous acid. Traces of a nitrite are also formed in pure water under similar conditions. Schonbein explains all these re- sults by the combination of nitrogen with the elements of the water, producing at the same time ammonia and nitrous acid. As he has well remarked, this reaction serves to explain the absorp- tion of nitrogen by vegetation, and through the oxidation of nitrite, the formation of nitrates in nature. By these elegant experiments he has confirmed, in a remarkable manner, my theory of nitrification, and of the double nature of free nitrogen. It is, however, evident that since the publication of my note of March, 1861, above referred to, we cannot say with SchSnbein that the generation of nitrite of ammonia from nitrogen and water is ' a most wonderful and wholly unexpected thing.' " . " It is, however, unfortunate for Dr. Hunt's theoretical anticipa- tions that no sooner did experimentalists begin to purify the air that they used in repeating Schonbein's experiments, than the production of nitrite of ammonia suddenly stopped. The experi- ments of Bohlig and, more recently, of Carius, show that neither during the evaporation of water in air, nor during the condensa- tion of its vapor, does a trace of nitrite of ammonia manifest itself. The experiments of Carius are especiallv decisive on the point, as they were both numerous and most carefully performed. The 224 Scientific Intelligence. verdict here, then, is very clearly adverse to the statements that have been made regarding the evaporation of water and the con- densation of aqueous vapor as sources of nitric acid." 14. On the Electrical Conductivity of Stretched Silver Wires ; by J. G. MacGeegor, M.A., B.Sc— A paper on the above sub- ject, communicated by Prof. Tait to the Royal Society of Edin- burgh on the 3d of January, contained a description of a series of experiments, conducted by the author to iind the effect of stretch- ing on the conductivity of silver wires. The wires were stretched by weights. The measurements of resistance were made by means of a Wheatstone's bridge, the wire under examination be- ing joined up as one of its arms. The dimensions of the wires before and after stretching, were determined by means of cathe- tometer observations and specific gravity determinations. The increase in length and decrease in thickness of the wires, caused by stretching, must of course be attended by a corresponding '"" "- -^-- • ' "^^ ■ to be r ■ ' The question to be detei whether there was not also a change produced in their by the change produced by stretching in their molecular state. To get this effect, if it should be present, at its maximum the wires were heated to just below the melting point before the weights were hung on. The results were such as to warrant the statement that if any such change is produced it must be very slight, the difference between the resistances before and after stretching being (when that due to change of dimensions had been allowed for) so small as to be within the limits of observa- tional error. No foimer determinations of this kind have been made for silver wires. For copper, iron and steel, Mousson has found that the change in resistance is not completely accounted for by the change in dimensions. In another respect also silver appears to differ from copper wires. Meik and Murray have found that the total increase in the resistance of copper wires, due to stretchmg, is directly proportional to the weights by which they are stretched. Some of the experiments of this paper show that this is not the case for silver wires. 15. The Nature of Light, with a general account of Physical Optics; by Dr. Eugei^e Lammel, Professor of Physics in the Uni- versity of Erlangen. With 188 illustrations and a plate of spectra m chromohthography. No. xviii of the International Scientific benes.— This is a very excellent popular treatise, intended to afford an answer to the question "What is the Nature of Light?" A mathematical treatment of the subject is avoided in the text, but simple and concise analytical discussions of the more important topics are given in appendices to the different chapters. It is illus- trated with numerous wood-cuts, many of which are novel and in- geniously devised, but most of them would have been more effec- tive had they been engraved in a style worthy of the book. The work is an admirably clear and well arranged exposition of its sub- ject, and is, in the main, well translated. Oeology and Mineralogy. 225 1 6, Manual of Introductory Chemical Practice, for the use of Stu- dents; by George C. Caldwell, S.B., Ph.D., Professor of Agri- cultural and Analytical Chemistry, and Abram A. Brenemak, S.B., Assistant Professor of Applied Chemistry in Cornell Univer- sity, Ithaca, N. Y. Published by the authors. 124 pp. 12mo. 1875.— This manual is an experiment on the part of the authors in a novel mode of chemical instruction, devised by them, with a view to cultivate on the part of the student habits of careful observation, attention to and appreciation of phenomena, and the deduction of legitimate results. In short it seeks to make the stu- dent his own teacher by simple synthetic or analytic experiments, and to lead him on by easy steps to an understanding of principles and of chemical philosophy — in a way unattainable from text- books alone. The student is required to give his results and con- clusions in writing, an excellent w^ay to secure accuracy and con- ciseness of statement. He is presumed to be in attendance on a reciting at the same IT. J^ote on the Electrical Conductivity of Saline Solutions ; by J. G. MacGkegor, M.A., B.Sc, Communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, May 17, 1875; by Professor Tait (Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb., 1875, 645.)— This note is a reply to criticisms by Professor Beetz published in the Sitzungsberichte of the Ber- Im Academy (and in Poggendorff's Annalen) on a paper of Mr. MacGregor's published in the Transactions of the Edinburgh Royal Society, xxvii, pp. 51-70. Mr. MacGregor shows that the criticisms are based in part on a misunderstanding of his paper and of his method of experimenting. II. Geology and Mineralogy. 1. Supposed Agency of Ice-Floes in the Champlain Period; by Professor A. Winchell, Syracuse, N. Y.— I have lately dis- covered some new instances of huge limestone masses, anomalously detached from the formation to which they belong; and have em- braced references to localities, in a paper read before the American Association at Detroit. These are masses of Carboniferous lime- '- from 10 to 60 feet in length and often of unknown thickness, to believe, must be genuine exposures of the formation, in place ; but others, by being worked out, or by their downhill dip, far exceeding, and disagreeing with, the normal dip of the formation, are demonstra- bly dissevered and displaced portions of it. For exara])]e, one re- gion of exposures of this class^ in the town of Claybanks, is withm half a mile of the shore of Lake :MichiLraii, wliere we have a bluflf 250 feet in height, and attainiiiy, a lew r...ls back, an elevation of 2t5 feet, serving as a station of the V. S. Lake Survey. The vicin- ity, for miles around, is elevated 250 to 300 feet above the lake. clay, andf 6 Scientific Intelligence. It the section of materials exposed in the bluff upon the lake shore wholly Post-tertiary. It consists of intimately mingl ifusedly stratified above, horizontally stratified lower down, followed downward by an increase of argillaceous material and pebbles, interrupted by a bed of bowlders, beneath which for 10 feet is a mass of bowlder clay seen above a lake-border talus of ten feet. aula, there should lie, still lower, a thick bed of tine, horizontally- stratified clay, with few pebbles, resting on a bottom-sheet of peb- bles and bowlders. The drift here is presumably not less than 300 feet thick. Now it is possible that, 2,500 feet back from this blufi; the bed-rock should appear at the surface : but my experience in Michigan strongly inclines me to believe that such is not the fact ; and that hence, the numerous outcrops near the lake are mere de- We have, then, in Michigan, in regions widely separated, the well- established phenomenon of extensive tabular masses of limestone floating in the midst of semi-stratified sands, generally believed to have been moved and deposited by an aqueous action, which, ob- viously, could not have transported at the same time these enor- mous tables of rock. We have, in addition, in some parts of the State, the evidence that this action was sometimes exerted in a northerly direction. Geological theory must attempt to account for these facts. The generally accepted doctrine of continental glaciation, recog- nizes a time when the broad glacier underwent a rapid dissolution. The volume of water arising is believed to have been sufficient to produce a long-continued, torrential flood, which moved and as- sorted whatever detritus existed in its path. Disregarding the detrital material, which must have originated from atmosph^'ric, pluvial and fluvial action over the preglacial surface, a vast volume of detritus must have been originated during the prevalence of the glacier, and chiefly through its action. Most of this must have rested at or near the bottom of the glacier ; but probably no small portion had become incorporated with the ice, or intruded into its fissures, or deposited upon its back. The first glacial film embraced the original projections of the ancient surface, which, with the move- ment of the glacier, must have been displaced to become ultimately a part of the glacier debris. These and the materials derived from sub-glacial detrition must have found their way, to some extent, into the bottom crevasses caused by any diminution in the steep- ness of the slope down which the glacier moved, and still more when, as was often the case, the change of slope became, in reality a northward declivity. These ordinary conditions of the conti- nental glacier— but feebly represented in the steeper slopes and narrowed limits of modem glaciers— must have resulted frequently in extensive disruptions of the ice, faintly typified in the pyramids and seracs of the Alpine ice-streams. Such upheavals of the lower beds— still more, occasional complete overturnings of portions of the glacier, must have brought considerable earthy detritus to Qeology and Mineralogy. 227 the very surface of the glacier. In the process of ages, as the ice iriay be supposed to have gradually diminished, through evapora- tion, if not through thawing, the superficial earthy material, which never evaporated, must have accumulated to a large extent. How- ever we account for this fact, every one knows that human bodies or other objects, accidentally lost in the glaciers of Mont Blanc, re- appear at the surface after a series of years, at points some thou- sands of feet below. I infer, therefore, that the material moved by the diluvial waters may have been afforded by some of the interior portions and even the surface of the glacier, as well as by the subjacent rock-rubbish. I will only add that some portions of the material in and upon the ice may have been let down in situ by the slow disappearance of the glacier, without having been subjected to the assorting action of the glacial torrents.* This process is impressively illustrated along the borders of the Mer de Glace and other Alpine glaciers ; and more instructively still in the buried glacier stumps^ound in the gulches of the Sierra Nevada, and elsewhere in the Pacific States. I know of no certain evidences, in Michigan, of a Champlain de- pression of such extent as to bring the surface of any portion of the State below the sea-level. In a district so nearly horizontal, how- ever, there must have been a period, before the erosions of the mod- ern drainage courses had begun, during which the drainage was ex- ceedingly obstructed and slow. The supply of water from the dis- solving glacier was greater than could be discharged through the forming outlets; and'the extensive areas must have lain submerged until the deepening of the outlets permitted their drainage. But this period was, by hypothesis, that when a geologic winter was merging into a geologic spring. There was not yet a summer cli- mate ; and the annual winter must have congealed the surfaces of the surrounding lakes, and arrested the superglacial torrents, if it did not materially diminish the flow of the subglacial ones. I think the steps of this reasoning safe and sound. But we have here an overlooked condition of glacial agency in the natural order positions of'rock-m'asses to which I have refen-ed. There were re- gions in these lakes w-here rocky formations rose nearly to the sur- face, or projected to a slight extent above it. On the freezing of the watery surface, these would be firmly embraced in the ice. Meantime, as the supply of water is diminishing through the ad- vance of the annual winter, the lake subsides, and the frost takes holil of the exposed rock at a greater depth. But the annual spring and summer return. The supply of water increases, the surface of the lake rises and the floating field of ice lifts sheets of previously half-disjointed limestone, and floats them in the direction whither the current sets or the wind blows. They may be dropped some „v,*n'^l^ ^^^^ ^as first impressed upon my attention by my brother, N. H. Win- chell, who has studied the Drift with much assiduity. See his papers in Proc. Amer. Assoc, Dubuque Meeting, 1872, and in the "Popular Science Monthly" for June 228 Scientific Intelligence. miles northward from their native bed, and may I _ mulation of sand moved by aqueous agencies quite inadequate to move cubic yards of solid rock. I think that ice floes are capable of such work ; and I believe it is not essentially different from work in progress in the tracks of Arctic currents in modern times. The same agency would have picked up and transported the rounded northern bowlders, which we find scattered, also, to some extent, through the same sands. It could not be expected that the existing configuration of the surface of the State should preserve the features which determined the existence and boundaries of such local lakes as I have supposed; but, after all, are not our existing interior lakelets examples of the same, perpetuated by the delayed erosions of outlets ? If it be as- serted that neither the less nor the greater lakes are engaged in transportation of limestone masses, in our times, it will be a suffi- cient rejoinder to remind the reader that the supply of movable masses of limestone must ultimately have become exhausted. Still, it is not a fact that work of this kind has entirely ceased, as any one familiar with the flotsam thrown upon a lake beach will be led to ration, which in Southern Michiga float toward the north. Between Saginaw Bay and the mouth of the Grand River is a broad depression, the highest part, of which rises but 12 feet above Lake Michigan. The southern tier of coun- ties in the State presents an elevation of 300 to 600 feet above Lake Michigan, The Corniferous limestone barrier, passing through Monroe and Lenawee counties, still maintains an elevation of 100 to 150 feet above the same lake. Have we not here some vestiges of that ancient conformation of the surface which resulted in a north- ward drainage into the great channel once intersecting the State, and the northward transposition of ice-born sheets of limestone and sandstone, wrenched from the elevated barriers in Hillsdale, Lena- wee and Monroe counties, and the contiguous portions of Ohio and 2. On the outlet of the Great Salt Lake ; by Professor G. K. Gilbert. (Letter to J. D. Dana, dated Washington, Feb. 4, 1876.)— I had not seen Mr. Packard's paper, when my attention was called to it by your letter of the 29th ult. Since he had " not observed personally any facts bearing on the subject," but merely advanced the ideas of others, it is not surprising that everything which is When the water of Great Salt Lake was at its maximum alti- tude it carved and molded a beach, which yet remains— a con- spicuous monument to its former greatness. Within the circle of this beach-line are included also Utah and Sevier lakes. The level of the ancient beach is 970 feet higher than Great Salt Lake, about 700 feet higher than Utah lake, and about 550 feet higher than Sevier Lake. From the upper beach the water slowly sub- sided by desiccation, recording its lingeiings in a series of fointer Geology and Mineralogy. the Sevier and Salt Lake basins, it was separated into two unequal portions. In one of these the evaporation exceeded the inflow from rivers, and the subsidence continued ; in the other the inflow exceeded the evaporation and the surplus was discharged over the divide into the former portion, just as the surplus of Utah Lake is now discharged into Great Salt Lake. In the course of time, as the climate became drier, this overflow ceased ; but not until it had carved a channel of some magnitude. The channel is crossed by the old overland stage road, and is known as " the Old River Bed." It is doubtless this ancient water-way which has been described to Mr, Packard. I am not aware that it has ever been determined whether the channel slopes toward Sevier, or toward Great Salt Lake ; but a consideration of the forms and dimensions of the two basins, and of the present relative salinity of the two lakes, leads to the belief that it was the Sevier Basin which over- flowed into the other. The summit of the divide cannot be far above the present level of Sevier Lake. In the early part of the field-season of 1872, I crossed the Salt Lake and Sevier deserts as a geologist of the Wheeler Expedition, and gave especial attention to the beaches and other phenomena of the ancient lake. Later in the season my associate, Mr. Howell, carried the observations farther south. Our examinations were sufliciently thorough to enable us to draw a map of the southern half of the old lake, but we found no evidence of an outlet in that direction, although we made diligent search. Ac- cording to the conjecture of Professor Bradley, and the unpub- lished observation of Professor Marsh, the overflow was north- ward, and the Columbia River carried the water to the ocean. There assuredly was an overflow. In the progress report of Lieut. Wheeler's Surveys for 1872, I have expressed the opinion that the hiimid climate which was marked by this inundation of Utah, was preceded by one as arid as the present ; and that the humidity was a phenomenon of the Glacial Epoch. A fuller statement and discussion of the facts ^ , and the accompanying i a map of the ancient lake. 3. Second Report of Progress of the Miner alogical, Geological and Physical Survey of the State of Georgia, for 1875; by (teobge Little, State Geologist. Bvo, 16 pp.— This brief report shows a large amount of work done during the past year. The several parties have travei-sed, in all, over 6,000 miles of road, making careful examinations and large collections along their routes. They have visited 105 out of the 137 counties in the State, and a list is given of the minerals, metals and building-stones, of economical value, which have been found in 76 of these counties. Under the head of Geology, Dr. Little says : " In the North- western portion of the State, the coal-formation has been found, l>y ^Ir. McCutchen, to be somewhat more extensive than observed 280 Scientific Intelligence. hitherto. There has also been some addition to our knowledge of the fossiliferous iron ore beds. "The metamorphic rocks, on the western border of the Cohutta mountains, have been found to contain lead, copper and silver ; while barite has been found at the base in Murray county, and large beds of the same near Stegall's station, in Jiartow county. The relation of the metamorphic rocks in these mountains, as well as that in the Blue Ridge and across the Chattahoochee ridge, along the Tugaloo and Savannah rivers, to the corresponding adjacent parts of Tennessee, North Carolina and South Carolina, have been studied, and a regular succession of Potsdam, Quebec and Cincinnati rocks found, in alternating bands, while the whole of this metamorphic region appears to be of Silurian age. "Prof. Bradley reports 'the extension of the gold-belt over large areas not previously recognized as gold-bearing ; the determina- tion of the age, equivalency and position of nearly every impor- tant stratum in the Blue Ridge of Georgia, including the copper ores of Fannin and Gilmer, as well as those of Lumpkin and Towns, and the corundum belts of Union, Towns and Rabun, (with the probable position of the equivalents of these latter in Habei-sham, White, Lumpkin and Dawson,) and the determination of numerous levels which affect both the working of large areas of the gold-field and the location of projected railroads. The points of greatest scientific interest are the identification of the serpen- tines, chrysolites, chlorites and steatites of the corundum belts, with the magnesian limestones of the Quebec group, (the Knox dolomyte of Safford,) and that the underlying schists of the gold- belt with the Knox shale of the lower part of the Quebec' " Prof Loughridge has found in the Southern portion of the State, that the Cretaceous rocks extend from Columbus nearly to Ft. Gaines, affording valuable beds of marl, and that the Tertiary rocks continue, from a line drawn from Ft. Gaines via Macon to Augusta, over the whole of the Southern counties, abounding in deposits of marl and limestone, while the more recent formations, of Okefeuokee and smaller swamps, afford an unlimited supply of marsh muck, which is already being utilized to the great advan- *^f.We' upon the detailed, systematic and ac'urate survey of each county in the several divisions of the State ; and it is proposed, during the next season, to begin this work at three points on the western border of the State— one party beginning with Dade county, another with Haralson, and a third with Muscogee." We are glad to see that this State, although the last in the Union, except Florida, to commence the systematic survey of her mineral wealth, is pushing forward the work so well begun last year. It has long been needed, and is evidently in good hands. The results above noticed are of great interest, and we shall look rather impatiently for the detailed reports " now in prepara- tion." This work in Georgia fills the only blank hitherto existmg Geology and Mineralogy. Its vigorous prosecution promises sc cially desirable detailed informatioi that State. 4. Geological Survey of Illinois^ A. H. Worthed, Director. Vol. VI. Geology and Paleontology : Geology, by A. If. Worthen and Assistants, G. C. Broai>heai) and E. T. Cox; Paleontology,, by O. St. John, A. H. Worthen and F. B. Meek. 532 pp., roy. 8vo, with 34 plates. Springfield, 111., 1875.— This sixth volume of the Illinois Geological Report commences with a chap- ter, by Mr. Worthen, on the Coal-Measures of the State, which cover 35,000 square miles, and have a thickness of about 1,400 feet. A detailed section, given on pages 2 to 5, includes 16 beds of coal, large and small, with intervening marine beds, proving that each era of terrestrial vegetation was followed by one of marine sub- mergence and abundant marine life. This chapter on the Coal- Measures is followed by others on the special geology of several of the Counties of the State. Part II continues the reports on the Paleontology, descriptions and figures of a species of fossil plants, MoUusks, Crinoids, and Fishes, with several of Corals, Crustaceans, Myriapods, Scorpions, Insects and Amphibians. This new volume adds largely to the new species of fishes and Crinoids, and somewhat also to those of MoUusks. The contributions of the Survey, through its paleontologists, to the departments of fossil fishes and crinoids greatly surpass all that have been made by other State Surveys; and those of Crinoids are unequalled by the publications of any other countrjr. The number of new species of fishes described, from the teeth, m this sixth volume alone, is over 100 (divided nearly equally be- tween Hybodonts and Petalodonts, with one Cochliodont), and besides these there are 45 species of fish-spines. The plates are full of excellent figures beautifully engraved. Mr, Worthern states that with this volume the series of reports closes, the "law-making power " desiring "to cut off all appropria- tions not deemed by them absolutely necessary ; " but that there are many fossils yet undescribed, including nearly all the corals and bryozoans, and many common fossils. The Reports issued make a most honorable exhibit of the liberality of the State ; yet the fact that the volumes are so full and excellent in all respects excites the earnest desire that the remaining volume should be issued which would make the series complete. 5. U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories under Dr. F. V. Hatdex. (1.) bulletin No. 6.— This new Bulletin contains the following papers : (1) An account of the various publications relating to the travels of Lewis and Clarke, with a commentary on the results of their expedition, by Dr. E. Coues ; (2) Notice Scientific Intelligence. ; Goinatite from Eastern Kansas, boptera from the Kc (4) Studies of the . (3) Fossil Orthoptera from the Kocky Mountain Tei \ with notes on the Zoology of the expedition. The Goniatite described by Mr. Meek must have had, he observes, a diameter in one direction of 1 inches ; it is a globose species, and is made var. excelsus of the Illinois species G. globuloms, M. and W. The fossil Orthopters, in Mr. Scudder's paper, ; I earwig, Labidura t \ cockroach, Homoeogamia ventricosus, This sixth Bulletin contains a general index to Nos. 1 and 2, first series, and Nos. 1 to 6, second series, and thus closes the first volume. 6. Geological Sketches by L. Agassiz. Second series. 230 pp. 12mo. Boston, 1876. (James R. Osgood & Co.)— Geological science owes to Agassiz the first distinct announcement of the glacial origin of the northern drift, and also the collection and publication of facts from Europe and North and South America establishing the truth of his theory. This beautifully printed vol- -- -' - " ■ • papers on the subject, £ "^"~ 'itlantic »d;"thc Roads of Glen Roy, in Scotland ;" the " Ice"-period in Ana "Glacial phenomena in Maine;" and the "Physical History ol the Valley of the Amazon." They consist of clear and vivid descriptions and reasonings from one who had seen the facts and scenes he describes, and whose mind was large enough to appre- ciate their significance and grandeur. We think thi^t Professor Agassiz has attributed too wide a range to the ice-covering of the Glacial period in making it extend over the tropics. But if not right in this opinion, his chapter, on the valley of the Amazon, will still be read with interest and profit. 7. Geological Survey/ of Victoria, Report of Progress; by R, Brough Smyth, Secretary for Mines and Chief Inspector ( by Ba] plates ( Observations on New Vegetable Fossils of the Auriferous Drifts; " ".A RON F. V. MuELLEu. 32 pp. royal 8vo, with maps and s of figures of fossil plants.— The earlier Reports of the Vic- toria Survey are noticed in vol. ix, (1875) of this Journal. From the Report of Mr. Smyth we take the following facts. The area of the auriferous grounds of Victoria is about 680,000 acres. The " ' ire 3,398 distinct auriferous tigated, besides many others unexplored ; and some have been traced for seven miles. One is - worked to a depth of 1,000 feet, and another goes down 200 feet Geology and Mineralogy. 233 below the sea-level and yields more than one ounce per ton. In 1874, 6,725 tons of auriferous pyrites yielded 18,911 ounces of gold. The vegetable fossils described by Baron F. v. Mueller are fruits, of kinds unlike existing Australian species, and all are referred to new genera. They come mostly from the auriferous drifts at a depth of about 150 feet, and are referred to the " Plio- cene." They include fruits of Spondylostrohm, cypress-like con- ifers; of Trematocaryon, supposed to be related to the Verbena- ceae ; of Rhytidotheea, allied to Chloroxylon ; of Plesiocapparis^ near Capparis ; of Celphina, supposed to be Proteaceous and most allied to Helicia of East and North Australia ; Odontocaryoriy not referred to any natural order, the author " being unaware of --T existing or extinct genus to which it bears really close Conchotheca, having fruit like that of Grevillcag, but ertainly Proteaceous ; of Fenteune, a large nut, but of doubt- ilations ; of Dieane, perhaps related to Capparidese or Pitto- ; of Platycoila, of doubtful relatioi 8. Glacier phenomena along the Kittatinny or Blue I in Carbon^ Northampton and Monroe Cos., Pennsyhmnia. — Mr. C. E. Hall describes extensive deposits of gravel and bowlders south of the Lehigh Gap and along the Lehigh River ; and also at Wind Gap, and the Delaware Water Gap. Four miles from the mouth of Marshall's Creek, on the road to Craig's Meadow, there are scratches on the Oriskany sandstone, having the direction S. 28° W. — which is toward the gap, following the course of the river. Mr. Hall also shows that the gravel deposits in and about the city of Philadelphia are glacial. Between Spruce and Walnut streets, west of Forty-fifth street, bowlders of Oneida conglomerate, Medina sandstone, and of other rocks, have been exposed to view which vary from one to twenty-five cubic feet in size, some of them glacier-scratched. He mentions also other localities of bowlders within the city limits.— Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, xiv (No. 95), pp. 620 and 633, 1876. 9. Wisconsin Geological Survey.— The Report on the Geological Survey of Wisconsin is ready for the press and awaits only the action of the legislature. A prospectus of its contents shows that It contains a large amount of valuable material. Prof T. C. Cham- berlin, of Detroit, has been placed at the head of the Survey for the present year. 10. Frequency of Earthquakes relatively to the age of the Moon. —Prof Alexis Pekbey continues his study of earthquakes, and has recently published in the Comptes Rendus a new statement as to the relation between the age of the moon and the frequency of earthquakes.* Dividing the period of a lunation into quarters, with the time of the syzigies, and quadratures as the centers of these quarters, he finds that the earthquakes are distributed as follows : Scientific Intelligence. Total. Syzigies. thesyzigi 1843-1847 1604 850-48 753-52 96-96 1848-1852 2049 1053-53 995-47 58-06 1853-1857 3018 1534-13 1483-87 50-26 1858-1862 3140 1602-99 1537-41 65-98 1863-1867 2845 1463-42 1381-58 81-84 1868-1872 4593 2259-52 73-96 1843-1872 17249 8838-03 8410-97 427-06 yzigies. J also finds that of the reported earthquakes 1843 and 1872, 3,290 occurred at the moon's The reported earthquakes between 1751 and 1843 are shown 1 conform to the same rule — that is, a large preponderance of earth- quakes about the syzi Professor Perrey i between the years' 1843 and perigee and 3,015 at the apogee. 11. Fossil Fishes of the Devonian of Tula, and Carboniferous limestone of Mjatschkoim, Bnssia ; by H. Tbatjtschot.d (N. M6m. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, xiii, 263, 277.)— The Devonian fish re- mains here described and figured include Hybodonts of the genus Claclodus; Cestracionts of the genera Orodus, JSelodus, Psammo- dvs; also species of Ctenacanthus. The Carboniferous limestone has afforded the author the Illinois species, Cladodus lamnioides of Newberry and Worthen : species of Helodns, Psammodus, Pcecilo- diis, Cochliodus, Orodus, Solenodm, Petalodus, Bactylodns, (one of Newberry and Worthen's genera), and Polyrhizodus ; besides some fish-spines, of which one, Ostinaspis acuta, is Petrodus acntus N. and W. 12. On the occurrence of native Zinc. (Letter to one of the Editors.)— Mr. W. D. Marks of Chattanooga, Tennessee, announces the occurrence of fragments of metallic zinc in the soil along the course of a vein intersecting the blue limestone of Sand Mountain, in the northeastern comer of Alabama. The c' posed to indicate that the metal came originally from the adjoining rock. Further than this, he states that pieces of metallic zinc have been picked up along a range of thirty miles, over the Racoon Mts, on the southern border of Tennessee, Sand Mt., and the northern portions of Georgia and Alabama. The vein is now being explored, and Mr. Marks hopes to find the zinc in place. 13. Brookite. — Exact measurements made by vom Rath upon an excellent crystal of brookite from Atliansk in the Urals show that the mineral from this locality at least is not monoclinic, but ortho- rhombic. E. s. B. 14. On the Serpentines of Z&hlitz, Cheifendorf and Waldheim; 5RR in Dornat.— The chemical examination of the by J. Lembeeg in Dorpat. — The chemical . _ serpentines, from the above mentioned localities in Saxony, by Lemberg, has led to the conclusion that they have arisen from the alteration of rocks consisting originally of chrysolite, garnet and hornblende. An analogous conclusion has been reached by other investigators for similar occurrences. In the case in hand it is shown that the readily-decomposed chrysolite has been changed Botany. 235 for the most part into serpentine ; the garnet into minerals of the chlorite group ; while the hornblende has generally withstood alteration. The paper of Mr. Lemberg contains a considerable imposition of the original min- decomposition. — [ZeUschrift d. aber of analyses showing the composition of the original " ' ? products of ^ ' ' "^ ■■ - Beutsch. geol. Geselhchaft, 15. Selwynite^ NoumeUe., Garnierite. — Mr. G. H, F. Ulrich, in a letter dated Melbourne, Nov. 3d, 1 875, states that the new species Selwynite, described by him, is not a homogeneous mineral. A microscopic examination shows it to consist of a felsite-like base, through which hydrous chromic oxide is disseminated, a or hydrous silicate of nickel is densely distributed in small veins and roundish patches. Some of the ore gave an assay up to twenty per cent of nickel, and others as low as two per cent. 16. Manual of Geology of J. J). DartM.— The following changes and corrections (besides some others merely typographical) have been made in the stereotype plates of the work since its first publication in 1874, and are needed by the copies Page XV, 17 1. from top, P. C. Carpenter for J. O. Cooper. Page 3, 8 1. fr. top, 1-1,200,000 for 1-200,000. P. 82, fig. 61f has been inverted ; and the same on p. 546. p. 147, 4 1. fr. foot, C. for F. P. 1 66, under fig., 4a Trenton for " 4 Trenton." III. Botany. bv Geo. ExGKLMA>-y, M.D.-This is a the Transactions of the AcadcTuy of modest title of a paper Science of St. Louis, Missouri, vol. iii, December, . rately issued it forms a pamphlet of 35 pages, 8vo. I take not it'begins that volume; so that the pages of the 236 Scientific Intelligence. are those of the volume, as ought always to be the case, for con- venience and uniformity of reference. Dr. Engelmann deserves high praise and many thanks for taking in hand, one after the other, our difficult botanical subjects, con- centrating his attention upon them for a while, elucidating them to the full extent of his opportunity, and leaving them in such a state that they can be easily understood, or readily followed up as occasion serves, by ordinary observers and collectors. His latest essay of this sort was upon Yucca. He passes from that to the analogous American genus. Agave, the " American Aloe," first distinguished from the old-world Aloe genus by Linnaeus, who gave them the present name, Agave, " because that word in- dicates something grand and admirable." The headquarters of the genus are in Mexico, but a considerable number inhabit our southwestern borders, and one reaches well into the northern States, There are " perhaps 100 species," — possibly a high esti- barium, while in cultivation they seldom blossom. The century plant, A. Americana, may sometimes in our cool regions literally answer to its popular name : semi-centennial specimens at least are not uncommmi. Dr. Engelmann first devotes a few important pages to the gen- eral structure and conformation of the trunk, foliage, inflorescence and fructification in the genus, and passes to a systematic arrange- of the N. American species as now known ment and descnpti to him, and of a fe^ ! light. They fall into three groups. 1. Singvliflorm, with flowers in a simple spike, a single one to each bract. Our northern Agave Virginica is the familiar representative : there are also ^4. maculosa of Texas, and A. variegata from just over the border, both in cultivation. 2. Geminiflorce, with a denser spike, a pair of flowers to each bract. Our species are arranged by obvious characters of the margin of the leaves, viz : with tnentose mar- dth aculeate- toothed margins, A. hetearcantha, Zucc. (which is Torrey's A. LechtiquUki), and A. Utaheusis, Engelm. 3. Paniculatm, the typ- ical Agaves or Century-plants, with paniculate inflorescence. There is a division with tube of the perianth much shorter than its lobes. Under this A. Newlerryi, n. sp., is marked by the insertion of the stamens on the base of the tube. The others, with stamens borne in the throat, are A. deserti, n. sp., A. Parryi, n. sp. (doubtfiiUy regarded by Dr. Torrey as a variety, latifolia, of A. Americana), and A. Antillarum Desc, with orange-yellow flowers, now eluci- dated from materials brought from iSan Domingo by Parry and Wright in 1871. The division with tube of the perianth shorter than its lobes, and bearing the stamens about its middle, contains a very striking species, A. Shawii, from the southwestern corner of California, which, having broad and deep-green leaves with a probably factit jelleut plates of brown horny margin, set off by the large light red-brown spines, is thought to be one of the finest of the genus for ornamental cul- tivation. It was discovered by Dr. Parry in 1850, but good specimens only now obtained, and it is appropriately dedicated to the founder of the Missouri Botanic Garden, from which much is confidently expected. Finally, there is a division known by the tube of the perianth equaling the lobes or hardly shorter, and bearing the stamens : to this belong A. rigida Miller, with the Yucatan doubtful variety, Sisalana, introduced nearly forty years ago into S. Florida by the unfortunate Dr. Perrine ; A. Palweri, n. sp., from S. Arizona; and A. WisUzeni, n. sp. (which has had the utterly false name of A. scahra in Germany) in Northern Mexico. A reference to one or two very imperfectly known spe- cies is appended. Of A. Americana, there is a mere mention that it has a stipitate capsule. In all species, so far as known to Dr. Engelmann, the anthers discharge their pollen about forty-eight hours before the style matures and the stigma can receive pollen. After the expansion of the lobes of the latter, at least in A. Virginiea, a viscid liquid fills the cavity of the apex of the style, " whether stigmatic, or only intended to allure insects, has not been ascertained." The figures which so commonly represent bursting anthers and a fully elongated style in the same blossom i - ^ -^ <• .-.• they certainly are in many otherwise kinds of flowers. In conclug' pecies of Agavi vhat hour of the day the anthers begin t pollen, and at what time they become efl*ete, and in what state the style is at these periods. The anthesis, so far as Dr. KiiinK r''j,^.^^.„_. ,^..,^.„..„„ ,... ..le Coast of Alaska ; by W. H. Ball. Ibid; Appendix No. 11.— The first of these papers contains new facts on the tides, currents, ocean and land temperatures, hydrography, topography and other charac- teristics of the vicinity of Alaska and some of the Aleutian Islands. The Shumagin Islands, south of the extremity of the Alaska Penin- sula, are described as composed of granite, various metamorphic rocks and sandstones, overlaid by Tertiary beds, " of which the upper beds contain fossiliferous layers of Miocene age, the lower ones containing remains of warm temperate vegetation, and the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 243 including mollusks and } also recent lavas. The second paper contains, besides geographical and hydro- graphical observations, tables of magnetic declinations at positions among the Aleutian Islands, according to different observers, in- cluding new results obtained by the Coast Survey. From them it appears that there is a decrease of the easterly variation at the stations where observations have been taken, when the results are compared with those heretofore published. The following are some of the results obtained : At Amehitka Island, Constantine Harbor, 51° 23-' 32"-9 K, 179° 12' 12''-2 E., variation 7° 15' 33" E. At ChichagofE Harbor, Attn Island, 52° 55' 57"-23 N., 173° 12' 22"-2 E., varia- tion 7° 44' 36" E. At Unalaska Island, Hiuliuk village, 53° 52' 37"-7 N., 166° 31' 36" W., varia- tioD 18° 59' 44" E. At Shumagin Island, Popoff Straits, 55° 19' 16"-7 N., 160° 31' 14"-1 W., varia- tion 20° 29' 23"-7 E. 3. Memoirs of the Peabody Academy of Science , Vol. I, No. 4. 94 pp. Roy. 8vo, with plates. Salem, Mass., Dec. 1 875.— This fourth number of the " Memoirs " is occupied with a paper by the late Dr. Jeffries Wyman, on the Fresh-water Shell Mounds of the St. John's River, Florida.— The facts published by Dr. Wyman in for- mer articles are here brought together along with the results of new observations by him, and they are presented with the usual thorough and cautious method of the author. The mounds are often five or six hundred feet in length, and vary from a few feet to eighteen or twenty in height. Dr. Wyman, after a full description of them, states as his conclusions, that, at the least, two or three hundred years, and probably more, have passed since they were finished ; that the fact that the human bones are broken in the same manner as the bones of edible animals proves the makers to have probably been cannibals ; that fragments of pottery, while in the later mounds, are not found in the older ; that stone impic ments are few in the older mounds and rudely made ; that the sheJ heaps contain fragments of the Mastodon, Elephant, Horse, Ox, and some other extinct animals, but that these show by the changes they have undergone, that the animals were not cotemporanes of the mound-builders ; that the only skull found differs from the skulls of the Indian burial mounds of the country, in being longer, with the ndges and processes more pronounced, and that among the bones of two other individuals the tibia was flattened; that, while It is uncertain whether the makers of the mounds were the same people that were found there by the Spaniards and French, the absence of pipes and pottery, and the rarity of ornaments, are consistent with the conclusion that they wei-e a different people. 4. Annual Meport of the Chief of Engineers to the Secretary of War for the year \%15. Part I, 990 pp. 8vo. Part II, 1254 2i4 Miscellaneous Intelligence. pp. ; each with many maps and illustrations. — The Annual Report of the Engmeering Department is of high importance in a scien- tific point of view. Besides details as to work done in the improve- of harbors and rivers, and discussions of the i carrying on such improvements, it contains a great amount of new information, on the geography, resources and trades of the regions examined, results of hydraulic investigations, discussions of the modes of wear, transportation and deposition by rivers, the topography, and on the productions and resources of the territories, besides facts and views on other topics. Among the articles in the Report for 1875, the following are especially noteworthy: :Major Warren's Report on the Minnesota River, which is both historical, descriptive and geological, and contains a map showing the Mississippi when Lake Winnipeg was its head (this Journ., ix, p. 313) ; Commissioner H. L. Abbot's analysis of the Mississippi floods; Gen. T. G. Ellis's Report on the Connecticut River, in which the amount of discharge of the river at Hartford is given for each day, from Feb. 1, i 871, to Dec. 31, 1874, and, as an incidental result, the parabolic form of the curve of subsurface velocities in a river, as made known by Hum- phreys and Abbot (in their Report on the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi), is fully confirmed by observations at Thomp- son ville ; Col. Gilmore's Report on the compressive strength a"-' specific gravity of the building stones in the United States m most general use ; Report of Clarence King with reference to the geological exploration of the 40th parallel; Report of Lieut. G. M. Wheeler, on geographical explorations and surveys west oi OOtl ■"■ ^ , ^ ,, , T^ . «^ the expei 5. An: Surveys west of the lOO^A Meridian /hj Geoege M. Wheeler, 1st Lieut, of Engineers U. S. A. 196 pp. 8vo. Washingtor 1875.— This report is included in the Annual Report of the Chi^ of Engineers for 1875, as above mentioned. Besides the Report on the Geographical, Geodetic, Hypsometrical, Astronomical and Meteorological work of the survey, this volume contains the fol- lowing: a discussion on Aneroid barometers; a Report on the Geology of part of northwestern New Mexico examined in 1874, by E. D. Cope, containing, besides geological observations, descrip- tions of fossil vertebrates of the Santa F6 Marls, on the Ti/pothorax coccinarum Cope, from beds supposed to be Triassic (already n(^ ticed in this Journal, III, vol. x, p. 153), on the Eocene plateau, and a list of fossil vertebrates from beds of the horizon of the Green River horizon ; Geological and Mineralogical Report, by O. Loew, on portions of Colorado and New Mexico ; Preliminary Botanical Report, by Dr. J. T. Rothrock; Report upon the Agricultural resources of northern New Mexico and southern Colorado, by Vt. O. Loew, in which several analvses of soils, plants, etc , are given ; ' '^ I H. C. Yarrow ; Ornithological notes, " " .Aiken; Report on the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 245 Remains of population observed on and near the Eocene plateau of northwestern New Mexico, by E. D. Cope, illustrated by a number of wood-cuts giving plans of structures ; a report on the ruins of New Mexico, by O." Loew, and also another, by Lieut. R. Birnie, Jr. ; on the Pueblo Languages of New Mexico, and of the Moquis of Arizona, by A. S. Gatschet. Dr. Loew's papers contain analyses of the basalt of Abiquin, oi a zeolite, of garnets from the region of the " memorable diamond excitement," chrysolite, the green feldspar of Pike's Peak, soils and 6. Geological Survey of the Territories, under the Interior De- partment, Dr. F. V. Hayden in charge.— (1.) New Puhlicatlons to he issued during the year 1876. The following publications connected with the U. S. Geolodcal Survey of the Territories under the direction of Prof. F. V. Hay den, are in press, and will be issued during the year 1876 : 1. The Invertebrate Palseontology of the Western Territories, by F. B. Meek, making Volume IX of the quarto series. It will contain 600 pages of text and 45 plates ; over 500 pages are already printed. 2. The Fossil Flora of the Lignitic Group, by Leo Lesquekettx, making Volume VII of the quarto series. It is illustrated by 65 plates. 3. Monograph of the North American Rodentia, by Messrs. Coues and Allkx, to constitute Volume X of the quarto series, and to contain nume- rous plates. 4. Monograph of the Geometrical Moths, by Dr. A. S. Packard, to constitute Volume XI of the quarto series. It will be illustrated by 13 plates, some of which contain from 75 to 100 figures. 5. Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians, by Dr. Washington Mathews, F. S. A. This volume is now passing through the press, and will prove one of great interest ; it will contain about 500 octavo pages. 6. Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey for 1874, in octavo, now in the press. 7. The Annual Report of the Survey for 1875, which will go to press about May 1st. 8. Bulletin of the Survey for 1876, Volume II. This volume will be issued in numbers, and will comprise about 200 pages of text, vnth 30 octavo plates. The ancient re- mains of Southern Colorado, Utah and Arizona will be described by Messrs. Holmes and Jackson. It will also contain an impor- tant paper on the ancient skulls, with numerous illustrations. Other volumes are in process of preparation, and may be printed before the end of the year. (2.) Descriptive Catalogue of the Photographs,^ . H. Jackson, Photographer. The Catalogu '^ 1,. .^ .k. ^..vo. ,« ries: one, of the ., -J J ^js; another inches ; and a third, stereoscopic. The f , examination of them, are of unusual beauty and perfection— the largest and grandest the Rocky Mountain region has yet afforded. Those of the second series, fifty-six in number, include many views of the ancient stone cliff ruins and cave towns of the San Juan 246 Miscellaneous Intelligence. region, besides others of the Moquis adobe villages, and raany landscapes ; and all are admirable specimens of the photographic art. The country owes much to the Survey under Dr. Hay den for the knowledge of the Rocky Mountain territories which has been distributed through the country by means of its numerous and excellent photographs, as well as through its Reports. (3.) Models. To the Survey, the science of the country is in- debted also for a model in plaster of the Elk Mountains. It is made on a scale of 1 inch to a mile, aud corresponds to an area of 200 square miles. One copy is to be colored to show the actual features of the region, and thus to exhibit its geological structure. The model has been prepared by the artist, W. H. Holmes. The same artist has executed a model of one of the two-story cliff houses of the San Juan Region, and another of a ruined village in southwestern Colorado. The cliff in the former has a height above the house of 200 feet vertically. (See Bulletin, 2nd Ser., No. 1, p. 20.) A model of a cliff house in Arizona has been made by the Photographer of the Expedition, Mr. W. H. Jackson, on a scale of six feet to an inch. The model is colored so as to represent exactly the appearance of the ruins. Still other models are in course of preparation. We learn that copies of these models will be furnished at cost to institutions desinng them. 7. Specific gravity Balance of B. Parish.— A balance, con- structed on the same principle with that brought out by Mr. Parish, of Worcester, Mass., in the number of this Journal for last November, has been described and figured by President F. A. ',' ' ' ' Johnson's " New Universal Cy- clopedia," published two or three months since in New York. It Barnard, in the second volume of Johnson's " New Universal Cy- appears also that its author presented a paper on the instrument to the National Academy in November, 1874. A charge of plagiarism on the part of Mr. Parish has been thrown out. The editors of this Journal deem it a duty to say that they know the charge to be without foundation. The paper presented to the National Academy has never been published, __j .,_- _!.._, .,. (jfjj^ Mr. Parish communicated Industrial Science at Worcester has recently published ment that Mr. Parish showed him a model of his balance in October, 1874, or before the time of the meeting of the National Academy above referred to. Moreover, Mr. Parish's paper in this Journal was in our hands a month before the publication of the 2nd volume of Johnson's Cyclopedia. 8. Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, Harvard University, Jamaica Plain. Part iv, pp. 285-372. 1875.— This fourth part of the Bussey Institution Bulletin contains the following papers : Applied Zoology ; the importance of its study to the practical agriculturist, by D. D. Slade, M.D. ; Report of the Director of the Arnold Arboretum, presented to the President and Fellows of Harvard University ; A record of trials of various fertilizers upon Miscellaneous Intelligence. the plain-field of the Bussey Institute Storer; On the fodder value of Apples, by F, In his memoir upon the composition of hay prepared from the natural grasses of the salt marshes on the seaboard, and of the Prof Storer Name of the Hay. 1 If r 1 1 5 i j 1 Better kinds of Salt Hay from M-53 32-n ^\Z)^GrzBf'a2.j\junaj^''hil bosus), S-59 Rush Salt Grass (mean of two ThnoS'SairMarsh'Gr"' (SpartZ stri^ia)Z^. . . . !T. 29-39 Bog Hay {Carex strkta) care- fully cut and cured in June, 42-61 2.17 "0£r''-^''''"- 81, 6.54 6-88 45-99 33-42 86-29 Dead Bog Hay coUeeted in a field in December {Garex 41-64 Common AwhlJun^'lffii^') (taken from a bam), . ' 2-63 42-26 90-49 Flowering Fern (Osmunda re- 2I5! galis) (taken from a barn), . 8-23 85-04 l"^-^^-7^k;,rl- 30-70 vulgare), cut in flower, 1-00 82-69 Beach-pea Vines {Lathyrusma- "^™) --- 7-62 37-53 85-01 In conclusion, Prof Storer discusses the economical value of rough, low grade hays as compared with the "English" or upland 9. American Museum, Central Parh, New Fw^.— This Mu- seum is rapidly becoming one of the first of the country in scien- tific value. With Prof Hall's collection of fossils, and the addition soon expected of a suite of Barrande's Bohemian species, it will take the lead of all as regards Paleozoic paleontology. The Museum has also very large collections of birds, including the collections of Prince Maximilian of Neuwied and extensive selections from those of M. Vemeaux of Paris, and others of shells, insects, etc. The citj^ of New York appropriated $500,000 for a building, and part of it IS now completed. Already the persons visiting the Museum occasionally number over 10,000 in a day. Tlie Museum is under the general charge of Professor Bickmore, a former student of Pro- fessor Agassiz. 248 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 1 0. Summer Schools of Zoology and Geology at Cornell Uni- versity. — These schools will commence soon after July 7th, and "be continued for six weeks. In the Zoological department there will be instruction through lectures and laboratory work, by Prof. W. S. Baenaed, in Mollusks, Radiates, Worms and Protozoans; by Mr. J. H. Comstock, in Insects and Crustaceans ; by Prof. B. G. Wilder, in vertebrates, excluding Birds ; by Dr. E. Coues, in Birds. Specimens, living or in alcohol, will be furnished the stu- dents for study, including " two specimens of Amphioxus, one for dissection and the other for preservation." Prof. W^ilder will give information concerning the school to those desiring it. The Geo- logical School is under Prof. T. B. Comstock. Instruction will be given by lectures, study of specimens, and by field excursions. Fee for each school, |!30.00; $10.uo of it to be paid in April, or on the day of registration, and the rest in July, when the school 11. Anmiaire Be La Officina Central Meteorologica Be Santi- ago Be Chile, 1873.— The third and fourth year of the Annuaire of the Central Meteorological Office in Chili gives in detail the observations made at 13 stations during 1871 and 1872; as also an appendix in which is found a very excellent monograph on the earthquake of the 7th of July, 1873, by J. I. Vergara. The preface tothevolume,whichextendsthrough280pages, gives very complete catalogues of earthquakes since 1849, and reviews of the meteor- ological conditions as shown by monthly and annual means during 1870, 1871 and 1872. The whole constitutes an important addition to our scanty knowledge of the meteorology of that section of the w-orld ; and it is to be hoped that Yergara will soon be able to ex- tend the duties of the Meteorological Office, so as to add, to these climatological studies, those other special investigations into atmos- pheric phenomena, which the peculiar nature of the territory of Chili especially invites. c. a. Statement and Exposition of Certain Harmonies of the Solar System; by ~ " 'essor of Astronomy, CoUege of New Jersey. r Alexander's Memoir does not admit of an abstract, ; only, referring to it for his arguments and conclu- Hours with Insects, by i ^ . ^^. __. Half- Hour Recreations in Popular Science of Estes and Laureat. No. 1 "^ ■ Britain, by Prof. Greikie, and Causes of the degeneracy of Teel Prof. H. S. Chase, pp. 105-136. 1875. Geschichte der Italienischen Kunst. Vierter Band. 8vo, pp- 525. s und zum Sammeln der "Werke des :unstdruckes. Mit zwei 1 ~ ' ' '"" Leipzig, 1875. P. O. Weigel. "^ - ' ', J. E. Anleitung : ekes. Mit zwei Tafe Lo/jp.— For the biographical notice of Prof. Kopp, on p. 80, George Poulett Scrope, the eminent author < memoirs on volcanoes, died on the ISth of Januan dence near Cobhan, Surrey, at the age of 79 years. APPENDIX. Art. XXX.~Principal Characters of the Tilhdontia : by 0. C. Marsh. (With two plates.) The Eocene deposits of North America have yielded two new orders of extinct mammals, the Dinocerata, and the TUlo- dontia, both of great interest, and widely different from all known groups, as well as from each other. The latter order, recently established by the writer,* is comparatively little known, as the animals representing it are of moderate size, and but few of their remains have vet been discovered. The typ- ical genus of this order is TillotheHum, the more important characters of which can now be readily determined from speci- mens in the Yale Museum. This genus, therefore, will be mamly used in the present article to illustrate the order. Tillotherium Marsh, ISTS.f The skull in this genus resembles in its general form that of Ursus. It is of moderate length, much elevated in the frontal region, and with the zygomatic arches widely expanded. (Plate VIII.) The posterior portion of the cranium is de- pressed, and much constricted behind the fronto-parietal suture. The temporal fossae are large, and separated by an obtuse sagittal crest. There is no postorbital process. The frontal bones are large, and inflated with air cavities. The nasals are elongate, broad posteriorly, and narrow in front, where they unite with the premaxillaries. The latter are massive, and pro- ject forward beyond the nasals. They are united only by a slender bridge of bone, below the anterior narial aperture. The orbit is confluent with the temporal fossa, which is largely formed below by the squamosal The latter sends out- ward and forward a strong zygomatic process, and, downward, a short, obtuse, post-glenoid tubercle, which bounds in front the external auditory meatus. This opening is bounded behind by the posttympanic process of the squamosal, which unites di- rectly with the paroccipital. The tympanic portion of the periotic does not reach the external surface. The articular face for the condyle of the lower jaw is but very slightly concave, (i'late IX) The malar bone is slender, and forms the anterior *This Journal, vol ii, p. 221, March, I8T5. f Vol r, p. 485. A.M. Jour. Set.— Third Series, Vol. XI, No. 63.— March, 1876 250 0. a Marsh— Principal Characters of the Tillodontia. portion of the zygomatic arch. The lachrymal is of moderate size, and is perforated by its foramen in front of the anterior border of the orbit. The infra-orbital foramen is large. The palate is broad behind, narrow in front, and somewhat excavated. The anterior palatine foramina are confluent, and are enclosed between the premaxillaries and maxillaries. The posterior palatine foramina are in the latter bones, near the first premolars. The posterior nares are behind the last upper molars. The occipital condyles are small, and sessile. The opening, partially occupied by the periotic. There was a dis- tinct alisphenoid canal. The brain cavity in Tilhtheriiim is small, but proportionally larger than in Dinoceras* The size of the brain compared with the entire skull is shown in the accompanying cut, fig. 1. Figure 1. Outline of sku] view. One-fourth natural size. As in most, if not all, Eocene mammals, the cerebral hemis- spheres were small, and did not extend over the cerebellum or olfactory lobes. The latter were large, and projected well for- ward. The hemispheres were evidently more or less convo- luted. There was no distinct tentorial ridge. The cerebellar fossa is large, much expanded transversely, and elevated above the cerebral cavity. There is a shallow pituitary fossa, and no clinoid processes. The exit for the optic nerve is quite large. The adult dentition of Tilloiherium is represented by the fol- lowing formula: Incisors _. canines — ; premolars _; molars—. 0. a Marsh— Principal Characters of the Tillodoniia. 251 The two anterior upper incisors are large and scalpriform, and faced in front with enamel. They grew from persistent pulps, and strongly resemble the corresponding teeth in Eodents. (Plate IX, figure 1.) The upper canines were quite small, and separated by a diastema from the first premoJar. In the upper true molars, the fore and aft diameter is much less than the transverse, and the crowns are very short. The form of these teeth is well shown in Plate IX, figure 4, which repj-esents a nearly unworn last upper molar, natural size. The lower jaw in Tillotherium is elongate and massive, and the symphysis is completely ossified. The condyle is broad, convex transversely, and raised above the line of the teeth. The coronoid process is stout, and of moderate height. The angle is thin, and not inflected. The anterior incisors are large and scalpriform, and faced in front with enamel. The canine ijuite small. The lower molar series is of the Palceotherium and the last lower molar has a well developed third lobe, le vertebrae of Tillotherium resemble those of some car- nivores. The cervicals are short, and the ends of the centra nearly flat. The dorsals are of moderate length, and also amphiplatyan. The lumbars are quite large. The humerus is stout, and broad transversely at the distal end, which has a supra-condylar foramen. The radius and ulna are separate, and of nearly equal size. The radius is short, and both ends are expanded transversely, indicating but little rotation. The scaphoid and lunar bones are distinct,* and the pisiform is large and stout. The feet were plantigrade. There were five digits in the manus, the first being well developed. The meta- carpals are short, and the terminal phalanges long, compressed and pointed, somewhat similar to those in the Bears. (Plate IX, figure 3.) The femur is of moderate length, and its head has a pit for the round ligament There is a well marked third trochanter. The distal end of the femur is compressed in a fore and aft direction. The tibia and fibula are distinct, and the latter is curved and slender. The calcaneum is elongate, and the astragalus, depressed, with only a slight superior groove. The hind feet were plantigrade, and the five digits were similar to those of the manus. The remains of this genus at present known are from the Eocene of Wyoming. The specimens preserved indicate ani- mals from one-half to two-thirds the size of a tapir. Yale CoUege, New Haven, Feb. 18, 1876. * The scaphoid and lunar bones have not yet been found united in any Eocene type, The Explanation of Plates. Plate Ylll—Tillotherium fodiens Marsh. Figure 1, sid lower jaw, side view; figure 3, top viewc Plate IX— Figure 1. natural size ; figure 2, bot size ; figure 3, ungual pha side view ; natural size. miTwr Marsh. {Trogosus c AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] Art. XXXI.— Ori the Gases contained in Meteorites; by Arthur W. Wright, Professor of Molecular Physics and Chemistry, in Yale College. fell on February 12, 1875. Tl stony kind, containing 12-54* per cent of nickeliferous iron, and the investigation was undertaken chiefly with a view to ascertain whether the spectrum of the gases evolved from such a body, by the application of heat, would aiford any informa- tion respecting the recent theories connecting such meteorites with the comets. An analysis of the gases obtained at moderate temperatures developed the unexpected fact that their chief constituent was carbon dioxide, with a small proportion of carbonic oxide, these two gases constituting more than nine tenths of the product evolved at a temperature of 250°, and nearly one half of that given off when the heat was just below redness. As was to be expected from such a composi- tion, the spectrum obtained from the earlier portions of gas given off was chiefly that of the carbon compounds, and showed a very close resemblance to those of several of the Among the conclusions drawn from the investigation, it was stated, that the nature of their gaseous contents establishes a marked distinction between the stony meteorites and the irons * Analysis of Prof. J. L. Smith, tMs Journal, III, x, p. 362. Am. Jour. Sci.— Thibd Sbbies, Vol. XI, No. 64.— Apbil. 1876, 254 A. W. Wright— Gases contained in Meteorites. "hitherto examined," provided the Iowa meteorite could '"be taken as a representative of its class."* With a view to ob- tain data for a more extended comparison, the investigation was continued, and a number of meteorites of both classes examined. The results of this work are given below, and it will be seen that thej tend to justify completely the conclu- sions in my former paper, so far as any limited number of determinations could do so. The method of experiment was the same as that described in the former paper, except in some of the minor details, and need be but briefly described here. The specimen to be ex- amined was placed in a tube of very hard and refractory glass, which was merely softened at a red heat, and which, when filled with the meteoritic substance, could be maintained for a long time at this temperature without yielding more than so much as merely to deform the tube In no instance was air admitted by the cracking or drawing in of the hot glass. The air was ex hausted and the gas collected by means of a Sprengel pump of such perfection that it would produce a vacuum of but a fraction of a millimeter, and maintain it for days un- changed. The specimen tube having been attached to the pump, the latter was set in action and kept running until the air was thoroughly removed, as could be seen by the state of the gauge. The meteorite was then heated cautiously and the gas pumped out into the tube in which it was to be examined. Further details of the mode of procedure, where varied in the dilFerent cases, will be given in their appropriate places. The problem of determining the exact nature and relative proportion of the gases in a meteorite is less simple than it might at first sight appear. For not only, as Griiner has shown,! is metallic iron attacked by carbon di-oxide, but it also, in the presence of this gas, or other oxidizing agents, determines the re- duction of carbonic oxide, and its disappearance therefore from the gaseous products. In the case of the stony meteorites the question is still more complicated, as there is always present a greater or less quantity of oxide of iron, which at an elevated temperature must exert no inconsiderable influence upon the constitution of the gaseous mixture obtained from the mass. Gruner's very careful experiments showed that pure carbonic oxide progressively reduces the oxide of iron, at a temperature of 400^^ C. On the other hand it is itself reduced by metallic A. W. Wright— Oases contained in Meteorites. 255 iron, with a deposition of pulverulent carbon, though the action is very slight at temperatures less than 400° C. The commission who reported upon his memoir, in repeating some of his experiments, found that the temperature must exceed 350° in order that this effect may be produced at all. At higher temperatures the action is very marked. More recently Sir I. Lowthian Bell, in his work containing the results of a very elaborate and admirable seiies of researches upon the mutual action of the two oxides of carbon in the presence of metallic iron and oxide of iron,* has, in the main, confirmed Griiner's conclusions, but has shown that the results vary, not only with the temperatures, but also with the relative propor- tion of these substances present. He found that pure carbonic oxide begins to reduce Fe^Og at from 140= to 200° C, according to the substance used, while at a moderate red heat the oxygen is rapidly removed, with the formation of carboi) di-oxide. On the otber hand the latter gas was partially reduced by spongy iron at a low red heat, with the formation of carbonic oxide. We have further to consider the action of the hygroscopic moisture upon the metallic iron, as well as the mutual action of hydrogen and oxide of iron, at elevated temperatures. It is very evident then that the composition of the gases obtained at or above the temperature of red heat cannot be con- sidered to represent accurately the true constitution of the gaseous contents of a meteorite, and especially is this true in the case of the stony ones. On the other hand we can hardly assert with confidence that the different gases are expelled in exactly their proportionate amounts at all temperatures. In fact the experiments show that the proportions of the gases vary with the temperatures of their evolution in a manner not satisfactorily explainable on the assumption that such an effect is due to chemical action alone. It is important therefore that the experiments should be conducted in such a way as to facil- itate as much as possible the evolution of the gases, while at the same time they are exposed for as short time as possible to the action of high temperatures. The first of these conditions IS attained in a good degree by reducing the material examined to a state of minute subdivision. The second is approximated V continuing the application of the high temperatures for the shortest time consistent with a satisfactory effect in driving off the gases sought. In the case of the iron meteorites the material was generally prepared by boring out the solid iron with a steel drill upon a lathe, the substance being rendered as fine as possible. In 256 A. W. Wright— Oases contained in Meteorites. some instances this was not practicable from deficiency of material, and chips produced by a planing machine were used. The stony meteorites were reduced to powder in a diamond mortar. The iron contained in them being for the most part in very minute particles no further operation was necessary in this case. The powder from the irons, when the tube con- taining it was deprived of air, gave off" a small quantity of gas from the mere diminution of pressure, without the application of heat, in one instance enough having been evolved to allow of its collection in a tube. A qualitative examination of it showed that hydrogen and the oxides of carbon were present, leaving no doubt that the mere pulverization of the it to part with a portion of its gase< tents at ordinary temperatures, and greatly to facilitate the process at higher temperatures. The heat was applied by means of a Bunsen burner, carried slowly back and forth beneath the tube, which was wrapped with wire gauze. For the irons the temperature was carried, in the first instance, to a point below redness, in order that the action of the iron upon the gases should be as little as possible. It was about 500° C. The gauge was watched during the heat- ing and, as soon as it ceased to rise perceptibly, the flame was slowly withdrawn, and the gas at once pumped out. The evo- lution of gas, at this temperature, generally ceased very neariy in twenty or thirty minutes. After the gas was thoroughly removed, the iron was heated to redness with a cluster of four Bunsen burners, the heat being continued as long as any con- siderable amount of gas appeared to come away. This required usually but thirty or forty minutes, though in one or two instances it was continued somewhat longer. It will be seen from the results given below that the larger portion of the gas was obtained at the lowest temperature, in every instance but one. The iron meteorites examined were the following: First, that from Tazewell Co., Tennessee, described by Professor J. L. Smith, in this Journal, II, xix, 153. Its com'position is Fe, 83-02; Ni, 14-62; other substances, 1-93. No carbon was found. Specific gravity 7*9. Second, that of Shii ' " described by Professor ^. ^^^x.ixx^Li, ux^.^ ^- , . / contains Fe, 81-48; Ni, 17-17; C, 0-07, other substances, 1-27. Sp. gr. 7-875. . Third, the meteorite of Arva, in Hungary, noticed m this Journal, II, viii, 439. The analysis of A. Lowe gives Fe, 90-471; Ni, 7-321 ; residuum of carbon, silica, and cobalt, 1-404. Sp. gr. 7-814. Another analysis by Bergemann, Pogg. .^"°-' c. 256, gives for its composition, exclusive of the sulphide ol iron contained in it, Fe, 82-25; Ni, 8-12; Co, 0-364; P, 0-74; C, 1-54 ; Graphite, 2-00. A. W. Wright — Oases contained in Meteorites. 257 Fourth, the great Texas meteorite in the cabinet of Yale College, described by Professor C. U. Shepard, this Journal, I, xvi, 216, also, with an analysis, by Professors B. Silliman, and T. Sterry Hunt, this Journal II, ii, 370. It contains Fe, 90-91; Ni, 8-46; residue containing carbon, 0-50. Sp. gr. Fifth, that from Dickson Co., Tennessee, described by Pro- fessor J. L. Smith, this Journal, III, x, 349, and examined at lined Fe, 91-15 ; Ni, 8-01 ; Co, 0-72 ; bp. gr. 7-717. following table gives the results obtained, the numbers 0-06.'^'^Sp.^gr. 7-717 Thefollowi expressing parts in one^ hundred. The numbers in the third ;ive the percentage of each gas in the total They are not the simple averages of the each case give the percentage of each gas in the total ~' , t the simple average umbers above them, but the means reduced according to the volumes in each case. The totals in the last column are the sums of the volumes given off at the different temperatures. Xame. Temperature. CO^. CO. H. N. Volumes. Tazewell Co., 500°, 18-34 38-45 41-61 1-70 1-87 Red heat, 7-76 45-75 44-76 _1^ 1-30 Total, 14-40 41-23 42-66 1-71 3-17 Shingle Springs, 500°, 19-98 13-52 60-92 5-58 0-65 Red heat, Ji'lO 3 0-39 84-40 JrU 0-32 Total, 13-64 12-47 68-81 5-08 0-97 Arva, 500°, 18-20 38*72 40-62 2-46 8-89 Red heat, _11^ 74-59 12-84 1-32 ^;24 Total, ~12-56 67-71 18-19 1-54 47-13 Texas, 500°, 9-76 8-43 81-81 I'lO Red heat, 2-18 48-58 49-24 .-- _^}^ Total, 8-59 14-62 76-79 129 Dickson Co., Total, 13-30 15-30 71-40 2*2 The small quantity of the iron available in the examination of the Dickson Co. meteorite rendered it necessary to be con- tent with a single heating to redness. The iron was in the form of coarse chips which were cut by a planing tool. The same was true of the Shingle Springs iron, and this accounts in part for the smaller volume of gases obtained in these two cases. We may add to this list the Lenarto iron examined by Pro- fessor Graham,* and the meteorite of Augusta Co., Virginia, the gases from which were analyzed by Professor J. W. Mallet. f The former vielded CO, 4-46 ; H, 86-68 ; N, 9-86, the whole amount of gas being 2-85 times the volume of the iron. The 258 A. W. Wright— Gases contained in A feteonies. latter gave CO^, 9-75: CO, 38-33; H, 35-83; N, 16 09, and 3-17 volumes of gas in all. In both these instances the iron was very strongly heated, the temperature in the latter case being carried nearly to whiteness, and continued for several hours. The volume of gas was divided into three parts, and the por- tions obtained at the beginning, middle, and end of the opera- tion separately analyzed. Keducing the volumes given by Professor Mallet for each of the gases in these portions to parts in one hundred, we have the following numbers : Mlddlt 6-01 End, 3-69 47-00 i: The percentages in the total amount of gas obtained are given above. It will be seen that the results for the first two por- tions closely resemble those given for the Tennessee iron in the table. In the experiments with meteorites of the stony class the same method, in general, was pursued, except that the first temperature was somewhat lower, being about 350°. This was adopted in order to lessen as much as possible the chemical a(;tion of the substances upon each other, and at the same time because the relative proportions of the amounts of gas obtained at this and the higher temperature wei-emore convenient for the analyses. The meteorites examined were the following : First, that from Guernsey Co., Ohio, which fell on May I, 1860, and is described by Professor J. L. Smith, in this journal, II, xxxi, 87. It contains 10-7 per cent of nickeliferous iron, and has a specific gravity of 3*55. Second, one from Pultusk, in Poland, which fell on January 30, 1868. This was subjected to an elaborate inves- tigation, and described, bv Dr. G. vora Kath.* Several thou- sand small masses were collected, of which, some examined by vom Eath were found to contain 10-06 per cent of nickeliferous iron, though other specimens analyzed by Werther and Kam- melsberg gave 21-08, and 21-78 per cent respectively. f It resembles somewhat the Iowa stone in its general character, and has a specific gravity of 3-725. The writer is indebted to the courtesy of Professor G. J. Brush, who sacrificed an excel- lent specimen for the examination, from his private cabinet. ^ Third, the meteorite of Parnallee, India, Feb. 2>i, 185/, found by Pfeiflfer:}: to contain 6*84 per cent of meteoric iron. It has a specific gravity of 3-44. 50jaJbirigen Jubilaum der Univereitat Bonn. Konigl. Aki .. der Wi Die chemische ] A. W. Wright— Gases contained in Meteorites. 259 Fourth, the meteorite of Weston, Conn., which fell Dec. 14, 1807. This is one of the most interesting meteorites known, and is remarkable both for its lithological character, and for the large amount of iron contained in it, this being estimated as from 30 to 40 per cent. Its specific gravity is 3-6.* These, together with the Iowa County meteorite, all belong to the class of chrondrites, of G. Kose, or sporadosiddres, of Daubree, and are good representatives of the ordinary or most numerous class of the stony meteorites. In the examination of the Iowa County meteorite already referred to, the determinations were made "for a number of dif- ferent temperatures, the results being as follows : CO, N 0-00 0-00 4-56 5-18 6-01 100-00 100;00 100-00 100-00 100-00 The separation of the gaseous volume into so many rendered the estimation of minute quantities of any ' ^ • • ^ '^ that t' certain, and it is probable that the percentage of the nitrogen, which was estimated as a residue, may have had thus set down to it, besides the errors of the determinations, very small amounts of carbonic oxide and possibly of marsh gas, which was found in all the cases in the present investiga- tion. But they were at all events too small to be certainly distinguished from errors of observation. In the re-examina- tion of this meteorite for carbon di-oxide mentioned below, the nitrogen was directly determined in gas given off after exposure to a red heat for a considerable time, and corresponding nearly to the portion referred to in the last column of the above table. The amount found was 3-41 per cent But no great stress should be laid upon such a discrepancy, considering the manner and the purpose of the preceding determination. The latter determination agreed with the former as to the absence of car- bonic oxide and marsh gas, at that temperature. The results obtained for the different cases are shown in the following table. The numbers given for the Iowa County meteorite are reduced from the former analysis, the volumes being obtained from the notes made at the time, and 500° being assumed as approximately representing the temperature there given as "below red heat" The first temperature in the case of the Ohio meteorite was also 500°, this being the first one determined. The second heating was also continued for a longer time, which accounts for a slight difference between this *B. Silliman, Sen., Memoirs Conn. Acad., vol. i, p. 142. 260 A. W. Wright— Oases contained in Meteorites. and the other cases. As it was found that this degree of heat- ing left too small a proportion of the gas for the second determi- nation, as also for other reasons mentioned above, the temperature of about 350° was employed in the succeeding experiments : Red heat, Total, Parnallee, 350° Red heat, Total Weston, 350°. Red! Total Iowa, 500°, Red heat, Total, heat was le-lg 216 2-26 1-66^ 12-37 0-93 3-41 ^~88 "T40 2-05 31-89 1-78 81-01 1-99 1-73 13 36 1-91 33-97 7-35 6-00 49-99 2-69 60-29 4-35 3-61 29-50 2-25 87-53 1-13 1-22 8-72 140 72-43 2-53 3-22 20-03 1-79 81-02 1-74 2-08 13-59 1-57 86-29 1-84 1-19 8-59 2-09 62-I8 _3-43 3-10 2806 3-13 80-78 2-20 1-63 13-06 2-33 58-04 401 00 34-82 3-13 19-16 74-49 6-14 35-44 ~i^ ~0^ 57-88 aed, i ! of the lo' longer than in the subsequent experiments with the others, and the result shows a greater diminution in the amount of carbon di-oxide obtained. Rejecting the last column in the analysis quoted above, we have for the total average percentage up to red heat, CO^, 49'51 ; CO, 2'64 ; H, 43-93; N, 392, which corresponds more nearly with the results in the other cases. The numbers given in this table show a very satisfactory con- cordance, though there are slight differences"! doubtless arising from the fact that the temperatures employed, and the times of exposure to the heat, though approximately the same in the different instances, could not be made absolutely identical. The mass of material operated upon was also not always the same, which would produce a slight difference in the time re- quired for the evolution of the gas, and the completeness of its elimination. It will be observed that a small amount of marsh gas was found in each of the portions of gas obtained m the present investigation. This might possibly be accounted ior, in the case of the higher temperatures, by the decom- position of organic matter taken up by the meteorite sub- sequently to its fall, or of carbonaceous matter originally contained in it; but as such decomposition would not be likely to take place, to any great extent, at so low a tempera- A. W. Wright— Gases contained in Meteorites. 261 ture as 350°, there is reason for believing that it is really one of the constituents of the meteoritic gases. The determinations made both by absorption of the carbonic oxide with cuprous chloride, and by the production of carbon di-oxide after the explosion with oxygen, agreed very well, and the analyses in each case were best satisfied by the assumption of the amounts of marsh gas indicated in the table. The Ohio meteorite was also examined at a number of different tempera- tures, the different portions of gas having the following pro- portions of carbon di-oxide : at 100°, 95-92 ; at 250^ 86-36 ; at 500°, 82-28; at incipient red heat, 33-55; at red heat, 19*16, showing a progressive decrease similar to that observed in the case of the Iowa meteorite. On comparing the results given in the two tables a marked difference is at once evident. Not only do the stony meteorites give off a much larger volume of gas at low temperatures, but the composition of it is in all the cases examined quite distinct from that of the gas evolved from the irons. In no case among the results obtained from the latter is the amount oi carbon di-oxide greater than 20 per cent at 500°, nor than 15 per cent from the whole quantity evolved, while in every case but one the volume of carbonic oxide is considerably larger. In the chondrites, on the other hand, the percentage of the latter gas is conspicuously small, while the carbon di-oxide not much less, especially if we reject the numbers in the last column above, for the amount obtained by a second and long- continued application of red heat. At a temperature of about 350°, it constitutes from 80 to 90 per cent of the gaseous pro- ducts, in all cases, while at the heat of 100° C. it forms sotne- what more than 95 per cent of the gas evolved in the only two cases examined in this respect. The hydrogen, on the other hand, progressively increases in quantity with the rise in the temperature of evolution, and in the last portions given off at red heat is generally the most important constituent. Its propor- tion in the total percentage would, no doubt, be considerably increased if the heat were greatly intensified, " ' - '^ carried to a point approaching whiteness, but the results ob- tained in such a way would be entirely unreliable, from the action of the metallic iron and the oxide of iron on the carbon compounds, or upon the hydrogen itself In the examination of the Parnallee, Pultusk and Weston meteorites, a small quantity of the moisture given off at a high temperature was collected in a glass tube attached to the pump and surrounded with a freezing mixture. This, when tested, gave distinct traces of chlorine for the Parnallee and Weston 262 A. W. Wright — Gases contained in Meteorites. but that from the Pultusk seemed to contain little or none. The latter however, as well as the Parnallee, showed the pres- ence of a minute quantity of sulphurous oxide, the Weston A question naturally suggests itself as to the manner of the occurrence of the carbon di-oxide in conditions which admit of its being separated so much more readily than the other gaseous substances. The most probable supposition seems to be that it is condensed upon the fine particles of iron as well as absorbed within them. That it is produced by the decomposi- tion of some carbonate is not likely to be the case, since the carbonates that could occur in meteorites all require high tem- peratures for the evolution of this gas, and the quantities obtained should increase constantly with an increase of temper- ature, whereas the reverse is true ; and certainly none of them would give up the gas at the temperature of boiling water. Another hypothesis might be that it is absorbed in part from the atmosphere. To test this, a re-examination of the Iowa meteorite was made, the material being heated until it yielded as nearly as possible the same volume of gas as in the experi- ments of the preceding year, a short time after its fall. Had it been constantly gaining carbon di-oxide from the air it should have given the same amount of gas as before at a lower temper- ature. On the contrary it required a more intense heating, and a longer continuance of the process. The percentage of CO2 was found to be 32-65. If any difference exists therefore it has lost rather than gained, at least in this interval of nearly a year. It is very probable therefore that no considerable part of the gas is derived from the atmosphere, though this cannot be asserted absolutely, and the question must remain for further investigation. The portions of gas from each of the stony meteorites, except the Pultusk, which was not examined, gave cometary spectra, similar to that from the Iowa specimen. On reviewing the results of the investigation there appears no reason for modifying the conclusions arrived at in the former article. The evolution of such volumes of carbon di- oxide may well be taken as a characteristic of the stony nieteo- rites, and its relation to the theory of comets and their trains is certainly of great significance. The further discussion of some of the results of the investigation, and certain interestmg questions suggested by them, are reserved for another corn- Yale College, March 18, 1876. & Newcomh—CroWs Clir Art. XXXIL—Beview of CroWs Climate and Time with especial reference to the Physical Theories of Qimaie maintained therein;* by Simon Newcomb. The present notice of Mr. Croll's work is confined to an ex- amination of his physical theories of climate, avoiding all those portions which have a geological bearing. The physical the- ories propounded have two distinct applications; the one to the present climate of the earth ; the other to the changes of that climate during past geological ages. In the laiter depart- ment of the work the principal object is to account for the glacial epoch or epochs, the author conceiving that there may have been several such epochs. The data from which his conclusions respecting the past are derived are necessarily founded on his theories of the causes of present climate, since it is only by a thorough discussion of the way in which all climatic causes ope- rate, and by tests of all the conclusions by a comparison with the present climate of the globe, that any safe rules can be formed forjudging of the climate of the past. We are forced to say at the outset that the physical data for forming a reliable estimate of the separate eflfects of various causes on climate are almost entirely wanting. The physical theory of cosmical heat is, at the present time, in a state nearly approaching the chaotic, a circumstance all the more surprising when we consider the advanced state of other departments of the theory of heat. Cournot and his successors have devoted to the mechanical theory of heat an amount of profound research which has made it a branch of the most exact of the sciences. On the other side, Melloni and his successors have done a great deal for what we may call the chemical theory of heat. Between these two lie the physical theory, as affecting climate and cos- raical temperature, "which has, comparatively speaking, been neglected entirely. To illustrate what we mean let us consider ^e temperature of the earth from the widest point of view, -practically, there is but one source from which the surface of the earth receives heat, the sun, since the quantity received from all other sources is quite insignificant in comparison. There is but one way of losing heat, by radiation into space. The tem- perature of the surface being in a state of permanent equilibrium, the quantity of heat radiated and reflected must be equal to the total quantity received from the sun. It is this equality winch determines the mean temperature of the surface of the globe. If the earth were not surrounded by an atmosphere, if. con- sequently, the amount of heat radiated from each square foot of the land, as well as from th6 whole surface, were equal to that „/.5"^^^*® *°.filrpr.ktChe».., 11,1.134. , fiir prakt. Chem., 11, i , . ,„„^ i Bericht. d. deutsch. chem. Gesellsch., vi, 1237. I Miinch. Akad. Ber., ii, 276. i L nstituiional formidce of Urea^ * 1. Uric acid, Gibbs.f H H H I I 1 I -H c— G— C— C=C C— i I— c— c -C-N i I i While each of these formulae possesses advantages for the explanation of certain cases of decomposition and certain derived products, an attentive study will show, I think, that all are more or less defective as to accounting in the simplest way for the well known basicitv of uric acid itself, bringing it into harmony with the general structure of non-nitrogenous organic acids, recognizing a close relationship to the 3-carbon series, and preserving as far as possible simplicity and sym- metry in the supposed arrangement of the atoms. In connection with the formula I propose it may be noticed : that it does account for uric acid being dibasic ; that it derives it as directly as possible from a residue of the 3-carbon mesox- alic acid ; that it explains simply most of the observed decom- positions of the acid; that it perhaps affords a reason, in the direct linking together of the two urea residues as well as their attachment to the acid nucleus, for the comparative stability of uric acid ; and that it also suggests a cause of the difficulty of reproducing this substance artificially, since in the attempt to form a salt of urea with a non-nitrogenous acid and then remove water the basic hydroxyl might be eliminated and the normal acid type destroyed, whereas this type is pre- * Lehrb. d. org. Chem., 1868, 800. f This Journal, Nov., 1868, xlvi, 293. t Ajin. der Chem., clxxv, 243 ; where moat of the formulae above quoted are § Chem. C t Aug., 1875, 4 Uric Acid, and their derivatives. 29a served bj tlae different mode of attachment of the urea residues exhibited in the formula now put forward. The mode of pro- duction from uric acid of allantoine, alloxan, paraban, etc., will be seen by comparison of the preceding formulae. Probably nroxanic acid, C^HgN^Oe, is represented by No. 1 H H H i A A i "-!-■* A IH- while the oxonic acid of Strecker and Medicus,* C.H^NjO,, produced under similar conditions, but showing by its contain- ing only three atoms of nitrogen that it cannot include two complete urea residues like those of uric acid, may perhaps have the structure of No. 2. The basicitv of pseudo-uric acid, C^H.N.O, plamed by ass^imiii and in one of them hydroxyl— thus : urea residues differently utta of hydrogen taking the pla 1 (monobasic). -N— H A-0_H In xanthine, C^H.N.Oa, whose empirical formula ( that of uric acid only by an atom of oxvgen, we ha aissimdarly attached residues of urea, but the basi( disappears altogether and with it the true acid charr ™ urea itself xanthine is capable of uniting wi srith acids. oxides £ Mallet — Constitutional formulm of Urea^ This formula (No. 2) may sei Strecker's di-methjl-xanthine is theobromine, C.HgN.O^, if we i No. 1, and caffeine, C„H, „N,0o, explain the fact ;ric, not identical, ^ ! the latter to be a 2. Caffeine (weak ba i : I both urea residues in each of these formulge being similarly connected with the acid nucleus. The relation to di-methyl- paraban (cholestrophan) is obvious. We may probably assume No. 1 as the formula of caffeidine, C^HjgN^O (a stronger base than caffeine). 1. Caffeidine. 2. Hypoxanthine (sarcine)— (weak base), n— N— CH3 I i Hypoxanthine, C^H^N^O, exhibits the s with xanthine, and containing one atom less oxygen may uc represented as in No. 2, above. " " s and xanthine accord by Strecker of the latter xidation, and of a mixture of both bases 3id by reduction with sodium amalgam. Passing to the compounds in which two acid residues are united with each other and at the same time with residues of urea, we may formulate oxalantine, CeH^N^Oj, as follows: The above formulae for hypoxanth well with the reported prodi: from the former by oxid U i i Uric Acid, and their derivatives. thus directly explaining the relation to para ban, and produ therefrom by coalescence of two molecules with eliminati( an atom of oxygen (or from a molecule each of oxaluric and paraban, with removal of an atom of oxygen and a i cule of water). Tlie union of hydantoine with allanturic acid, with se tion of water, gives for allituric acid, C JI,'N,0,, the for No. 1, 1. Allituric acid (monobasic). 2. Leucoturic acid (monobasic). u u U iJ 11 ik u u I I i :i I hJ-h I H-i and the like union of paraban and allanturic acid leads to No. 2 for leucoturic acid of Schlieper, C,H,N,0,. This last for- mula explains the possibility at least of a difterence between leucoturic acid and oxalantine, the identity of which does not seem clearly established. In each "of the last two cases we have one ureic residue inverted as regards its mode of attachment to the acid nucleus when the coalescence takes place. Two molecules of (dibasic) barbituric acid unite with sepa- ration of a molecule of water, giving rise to di-barbitunc acid, ^836^4 06) with unchanged basicity, 1. Di-barbituric acid (dibasic). 2. Hydurilic acid (dibasic). H ....0_ HO OH ....0_ G-C-6 C-A-G c-c-d c-c-c OiNNio 0:ifNOO II I \ . Ah h h Y^ile the union of a molecule of barbituric acid and [one of aialuric acid •^\\h i»ver>^ion of the ureic residue of the latter and elimination of a mdecule of water, gives us hydurilic acid, ^«H«N,0^,(No. 2). 96 J. ^Y. MaJht—ConsiituHonalformuloe of Urea, Alloxantine, CgH.N.O^, may be represented as clearly exhibiting the analogy of this body to oxalantine, and its production in a similar way by the coalescence of two molecules of alloxan with separation of oxygen (or a molecule of alloxan and one of dialuric acid with the additional separa- tion of water). The formula of Gibbs for alloxantine would seem to imply that it is a monobasic acid (or, according to the exact terms of his own definition,* tribasic). Finally, it is difficult to suggest with confidence a formula for the problematical substance 'murexide, CeHgNgOe. If an amide character be admitted for it ; and it does seem that evi- dence is still wanting to conclusively prove that it is an ammo- nium salt, especially in view of non-production of purpuric acid and the undoubted existence of isomeric iso-purpurates (and possibly other salts) which may have led to an undue assumption of identity of type between murexide and its metal- lic derivatives ; we may perhaps assume this substance to have the formula No. 1, dde (neutral). Murexide (neutral). H-N- A i h i i i i i A in which the union of two molecules of dialuramide is effected, with elimination of hydrogen, by the linking together of the ureic carbon atoms. This view of the constitution of murexide (making it alloxantine-amide) obviously affords a simple explan- ation of its production from dialuramide by oxidation, from ammonium dialurate by heating, from alloxantine and alloxan by the action of ammonia, «&c., and also suggests the probable * Loc. cit.,— "cyanylmaybe regarded as the acidifying term. It8 quantity, J. LeConte— Formation of the Coast Range of California. 297 ease with which isomeric changes may be brought about. If murexide be ammonium purpurate, the formula might perhaps be changed to the form in No. 2. While the views above stated as to the structure of the numerous and interesting compounds derivable from urea and uric acid are liable to objection at sundry minor points, and in several instances other arrangements of the elements might be adopted without interference with the main idea, I believe that on the whole the constitutional formulse set forth in this paper more nearly represent the present state of our knowledge of this group than any others which have been proposed, and especially possess the advantage of better explaining the chem- ical character or function of the substances referred to,* while at least equally well exhibiting the nature of the changes by which they are produced from each other. University of Virginia, Nov. 4, 1875. Art. XXXVIL— On the Evidences of horizontal crushing in the formation of the Coast Range of California; by Joseph LeOonte. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, November, 1875.] It will be remembered that in a former paper "On the formation of the greater inequalities of the earth's surface,"'! I sustained the view that mountain ranges are formed wholly by a yielding of the crust of the earth along certain lines to horizontal pressure ; not, however, a yielding by bending of the crust into a convex arch, filled and sustained by a liquid beneath, as has been supposed by some ; but by a crushing or mashing together horizontally of the whole crust, with the formation of close folds and a thickening or swelling upward of the squeezed mass. I believe the structure of all mountjiin ranges, in which the stratification has not been obscured by nietamorpbism, would demonstrate this mode of formation. I have long thought that the Coast Range in this vicinity is peculiarly adapted to exhibit in its structure the mode of its lormation. It is destitute of granite axes, and it has been but little, in many places not at all, changed by metamorphism or overlaid bv igneous ejections. A good section ought to clearly reveal its structure and its structure ought no less clearly to reveal the mode of its formation. W ith this conviction, on the 5th of January last, m company >> * •^^? formulae of Baeyer (in common with all bamide) seem to fail in securing this advantage, same sort of view of the ureides as that above stal t rhia Journal, III, vol. iv, pp. 345 and 460. 298 J. LeConte— Formation of the Coast Range of California. with Mr. W. Jackson, a recent graduate of the university, and now a special student of mineralogy, I set off afoot, and walked very leisurely through the out made by the Central Pa- cific Eailroad from the plains adjoining the Bay of San Fran- cisco through the mountains to the San Joaquin plains, a dis- tance of about thirty miles, taking the angle and direction of the dip at every available point. The following diagram is a generalized section made from these observations, showing the structure of this range. The section is supposed to extend from southwest to northeast, i, e., at right angles to the direc- tion of the chain, L. V. being Livermore Valley and J. P. San Joaquin Plain The range where crossed by the railroad is divided into two sub-ranges separated by Livermore Valley. Both of these sub- ranges, it will be seen, are composed wholly of crumpled strata, those of the western sub-range or Contra Costa hills being crumpled in the most extraordinary manner. The strata throughout the railroad cut are entirely unchanged and very distinct, and their dip may be taken with the greatest ease and certainty : but unfortunately they consist mostly of thin bedded shales and sandstones destitute of fossils, and so similar in appearance that identification of individual strata would be impossible without the most careful and detailed ex- amination. Only in one place did I find any fossils, and these were easily identified as Miocene Tertiary. On account of the infinite number and the sameness of the strata I found it im- possible to identify, and therefore I have not attempted in the diagram to trace the individual strata through the successive folds. But the general structure of the range is, I am sure, truly represented in the section. A glance at the section shows that the southwestern sub- range or that next the bay is far the more complex. We have here at least five anticlinals with corresponding synclinals, all in a distance of about six miles in a straight line. The angles ot dip vary from 40° to 90°, the average being about 65° to 70 . This would make the actual length of the folded strata two and a half to three times the horizontal distance through the moun- tain. Now it is not only impossible to conceive of the origin of such structure except by horizontal mashing, but the amount J. LeConte— Formation of the Coast Range of California. 299 of horizontal mashing must have been enormous. Estimating in the usual way, i. e., taking the present length of the folded strata as the original length of the strata when horizontal, there must have been fifteen to eighteen miles of original sea-bottom crushed into six miles, with corresponding upswelling of the whole mass.* I say estimating in the usual way: for the real breadth of the original sea-bottom was probably considerably less, since as I shall show hereafter, the strata themselves are probably lengthened in the direction of the dip. Nor is this particular section an exaggeration of the general structure of this range. On the contrary it is far less complex here than elsewhere. A glance at Whitney's map of Central California will show that the range is small and low at this part. This exceptional lowness is due primarily to the less horizontal mashing, and therefore less upswelling^ and therefore Uss complexity of folding, and therefore less metamorphism, and therefore less hardness of the rocks, and therefore also greater erosion of this part. Whitney has nowhere attempted to give a general section of this very complex range, but in fig. 1 on p. 14 of vol. 1, of the G-eological Survey, he gives a section of a small portion of the Contra Costa hills farther north, which shows much more crushing than any portion of the range cut by the railroad. The diagram section is supposed to be made at right angles to the general trend of the range, i. e., northeast and southwest. The folds are of course represented as striking in the direction of the range, and dipping in the direction of the section. This is very decidedly the average direction of the folds; but there is considerable variation to either side of this average direction. This shows that the horizontal or folding pressure came from several slightly different directions, perhaps consecutively. The same is clearly shown in the external features, also, of this very complex range ; for the sub-ranges and ridges of which it 15 composed trend in many different directions. But there is another minuter structure which I have observed in some of the strata, both of the Contra Costa and the Mt. -Diablo sub-ranges, which demonstrates, in the completest man- ner, the mashing together horizontally and the extension verti- cally, even of the constituent particles of the stratified sediments. * In my paper " On the great Lava flood of the northwest," this Journal, I 300 J. LeConte— Formation of the Coast Range of California. I have already stated that the mountain mass lying between the Bay of San Francisco and the San Joaquin plains is divided, by the Amador and Livermore valleys, into two sub-ranges; the Contra Costa, overlooking the Bay, and the Mt. Diablo,* overlooking the plains. Both Cretaceous and Tertiary strata are found in the latter, although their distribution has not yet been thoroughly worked out ; but the former consists wholly of Tertiary, principally Miocene. In both these sub-ranges seams of lignite of good quality have been found. Those found in the Cretaceous of Mt. Diablo have proved of great value and are extensively worked; but as yet nothing but very thin unprofitable seams have been found in the Contra Costa. Several months ago I was asked to examine the croppings of some thin seams of lignite near the town of Hayward, which had been opened to a depth of 100 to 150 feet. The coal-bearing strata dip nearly perpendicularly and strike in the general direction of the range. The place examined was on the lowest foot hills of the Contra Costa, corresponding in position to a in the section, fig. 1. While examining the mode of occurrence of this lignite, my attention was drawn, by the intelligent Superintendent of this mine, to certain slabs ^f shale in immediate contact with the seam, which were litendly covered with small rounded flattened masses looking somewhat like flattened pebbles. In fact he supposed them to be pebbles or shingle which had fallen into fissures between the perpendicular strata. Examination, how- ever, quickly convinced me that they were not pebbles nor extraneous matter of any kind, hut clay pellets or rioduks m the original sediment which had been flattened by strong pressure in the formation of the mountain range. Here then, I saw at once a means of determining the amount of mashing to which the sedimentary strata had been subjected in the process of moun- tain-making. I immediately commenced closer examination. The nodules were all greatly flattened and nearly all greatly elongated. Their shape therefore were mostly flattened ellip- soids, though some were flattened discs. The flattened ellip- soids were nearly all set on end between the strata, i. e., with their long diameters vertical, though some varied considerably from this position to one side or the other, and a few were nearly horizontal. They were found in close contact with the seam^on both sides, and some in the seam itself ; and insuch numbers that they covered the surface of the strata. When small and disc-shaped, or not much elongated, the surface of the over-clay blackened by contact with the coal presented a *The term Mt. Diablo range is usually used in a wider sense for the whole range on the east side of the Bay, as distinguished from the Santa Cruz Mountains subdivision of this range. J. LeConte— Formation of the Coast Range of Calfornia. SOI striking resemblance to impressions of the trunks of Lepidoden- drids. In other cases when greatly elongated they looked like parallel flattened root-fibers. The material of the nodules was similar to that of the containing clay, unless perhaps a little A few months afterward, March, i875, in company with a party of students and graduates of the University, I examined the coal mines^ of Mt. Diablo, and there also observed, in the roof of the seam, flattened nodules of sandstone often sur rounded with a thin layer of coaly matter; but the sandstone was coarse and the nodules were imperfect Subsequently Mr. Christy, an assistant in the chemical laboratory, who is now engaged in an examination of the coals of this coast, visited the same mines more extensively and brought me some very fine specimens of flattened elongated nodules. In these also I am assured the long diameters were in the direction of the dip. Now, there cannot be the slightest doubt that these nodules were once day pelkis, of all sizes, from that of swan shot to that of hazel nuts, which existed in, and on the surface of, the original clay sediments, having been taken up from finer de- posits rolled along by gentle currents and deposited along with coarser material, precisely as we find at the present day ; and further, that their present shape is due wholly to subsequent pressure, precisely as in the case of the greenish elliptical spots found in cleaved slates, and described by Prof: Tyndall:* and, therefore, finally, that by means of their shape and posi- tion, as in the case of the greenish spots, it is quite possible to determine the amount of mashing together in one direction and the extension or upswelling in another, which the sedi- mentary mass has suffered since its deposition, I take the case of the Hay ward seam as the simplest becans.- the .strata are vertical. Taking three e^?/^? rectangular diam- eters of the original unmashed pellets, one in the direction vi pressure, i. e., horizontal and at right angles to the strata ; another also horizontal but in the direction of the strike, and the third in the direction of the dip or vertical, it is evident that the first would be shortened, the third would be elongated, while the second would, on the average, be unaffected, since extension of this diameter in some places must be compensated by shorten- ing in contiguous places right or left We may assume, there- fore, that the elongation vertically is strictly correlated with the mashing or short'enins horizontal! v, and the one is a measure of the other. Now I found by careful measurement of a great number of these nodules that the shortest diameter bears to the longest the ratios of 1:3, 1:4, 1:6, 1:9, and ev( n 1 : 12 and 1 : U. I believe a fair average would be about 1 : 6 or 302 J. LeConte— Formation of the Coast Range of California. 1 : 9. Now as this ratio is the result of hoih compression in one direction and extension in another, it follows that either the compression or the extension would be expressed by the square roots of these ratios. Therefore there has been a crushing together of every 26 to 8 parts into 1 and a corre- sponding extension in another direction of every I part into 2*5 to 3. But since the short diameters were horizontal and the long diameters vertical, it is evident that throughout the whole squeezed mass every 2^ to 3 feet were crushed together horizontally into one foot, and every foot of vertical thickness was increased or swelled up to two and a half or three feet. This seems to have taken place principally after, by folding, the strata had taken a veitical position. Therefore by the pressure the strata ivere thinned and extended vertically. No allowance has hitherto been made for this change in the esti- mates of the original thickness of folded strata. There are several thoughts suggested by the above which I think worthy of mention. 1. The position of the nodules, sometimes on the surface of the coal seam, sometimes half buried, and sometimes wholly buried in the coaly matter, clearly proves that at the time when the nodules were first .rolled along and deposited there, the coaly matter was in the condition of very soft semi-liquid peat. 2. It is well known that slaty cleavage is produced by powerful pressure compressing the once plastic mass in one direction and extending it in another. The absence of slaty cleavage, under precisely these conditions, is evidently due, in the case under discussion, to the fact that the materials are unsuitable for the development of that structure, being far too coarse. If cleavage had been produced, however, the planes of cleavage would have heen parallel to the planes of stratificatwri ; and, therefore, the structure would have been almost undis- tinguishable from, and liable to be mistaken for, a fine lamma- lion structure. Now, in many cases this parallelism actually occurs. On the foothills of the 'Sierra, especially about Snelling, Hornitos and Mariposa, are found fine clay slates beautifiilly fissile with their planes apparently perpendicular, but in reality dipping at a very high angle to the northeast, i. e., under theVange. These are evidently true cleaved slates, and the very thin planes into which thev easily split are true cleavage-planes and not lami- . Yet I looked in vain for any stripe or other -rratification in any other direction. Also Whit- .. iGeoL Surv., vol. i, p. 226), and I have myself - -these slates pass by insensible gradations into, aiiu are even mterstratified with, coareer materials, showing dis- J. LeConte—Fm-mation of the Coast Range of California. 303 range at high angle. There can be no doubt, therefore, that all the strata of this foot-hill region, including the slates, underdip. the range at high angle. Evidently, therefore, the cleavage planes of these slates " ' ' ' '" tion planes instead of cutting as is most common. The diverse relation of the cleavage to the stratification planes I explain as follows: In a thick mass of very fine sedi- ments mashed together horizontally it is evident that the sur- face and upper portions would first'' be thrown into one or more close folds by which the strata are brought into a nearly per- pendicular position, and then these would be thinned and extended vertically by the pressure as already shown in the previous portion of this paper : but the deeper portions would be less and less folded, until, very deep, the folding would cease altogether and the mashing would be by thickening only and not by folding. I have rudely represented these facts in the diagram, fig. 2, in which the parallel, nearly vertical lines, represent the cleavage. In such a mass of horizontally squeezed fine sediments, therefore, the cleav- 2. age of the upper parts would be par- alhl with the strata while that of the \ lower parts would be perpendicular or nearly so to the strata. If, there- fore, the upper parts only should be | exposed by denudation" we would 1 have an example of cleavage parallel i to the strata, and we might be in i doubt whether to call the planes cleavage-planes or fine lam- ination-planes ; but if greater denudation should expose the deeper portions we would have an example of cleavage-planes cutting throuoh the lamination-planes at a high angle and therefore very distinct from them. 3. It is evident from the above that in many cases the thick- ness of the strata as we now find them may be very difler- ent from that of the original sediments. In estimating the latter, therefore, we must make due allowance for the great thinning in some cases and thickening in others produced hy pressure. 4. In my paper on the formation of the great features of the earth surface, already referred to, I have attributed mountam elevation to horizont.-il crushing. Prof. Dana,* however, thmks that, although the idea of plication is evidently included in my ^■'ew, yet it ought to have a larger place than my words seem to give it— ior the amount of elevation by plication is many times ("ten-fold") greater than by simple crushing. * Am. Joum., in, V, 428. 804 0. Harger-~New fresh-water Isopod. Perhaps I ought to have been more explicit in my statement, but it seemed to me unnecessary, because on the assumption of a solid earth the amount of elevation would be the same, or nearly the same, whether, by the horizontal pressure, the strata chains) or only thickened without folding. If every two or three parts in horizontal extent of sediments be crushed into one part, there must be a corresponding thickening of the whole squeezed mass, and, therefore, a corresponding elevation of the surface, whether the strata be closely folded or only thickened without folding. In reality, doubtless, both occur in every case ; close folding in the upper parts and thickening without folding in the deeper parts of the same squeezed mass. In fact it is impossible that the folding should occur above without a corresponding crushing and thickening below. Again, I am satistied that Prof. Dana greatly under-esti- mates the amount of elevation by simple mashing as c with folding: 1st, because folding is a superficial phenomenon and therefore always exposed to view, while crushing without folding is deep seated and only rarely exposed ; 2d, becausi folding is ahvays revealed by stratification, while crushing is only sometimes revealed by cleavage, for this structure is only developed in suitable materials ; and 3d, because even after folding, extension upward may take place by mashing to- gether of the folds, as I have shown in the early part of this paper. . I have spoken thus far of dosed folds. In open folds such as occur on the skirts of mountain chains where the horizontal crushing has not been sufficient to bring the folds together, the ease might seem to be different ; but even in these there must be a mashing of the strata below each anticlinal and propor- tioned to its height, unless we assume a hollow arch beneath, or else such an "arch supported by a liquid, an assumption which is expressly set aside in my paper. Berkeley, Oct. 11, 1875. Aet. XXXVIU.— Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Mu- seum of Yah College. No. XXXYII.— Description of Mama- sellus brachyurus, a new fresh water • Isopod ; by O. HaRGEB. The genus Asellopsis* was proposed by the writef for the reception of Asellus tenax Smith, on account of the absence or mandibular palpi. A second species of this interesting genus has lately been collected by Mr. Fred. Mather, in Eockbridge Co., Virginia Since the name Asellopsis proves to have been preoccupied I propose in its place Maucasellus* retaining M. ienax as the typical species, while the new species may be called M hrachyurus, Irom the short caudal stylets. This species re- sembles M. tenax, described and figured in the Eeport of the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, Part II, Report for 1872-3, p. 659, plate I, fig. 3, differing principally from It in the following points : The lateral margins of the head are entire; the proximal segment of the caudal stylets is short, being but little longer than the third segment of the antenna ; the rami are also short, the inner being much stronger and somewhat longer than the outer; in the males the propodus of the first pair of legs is armed with a prominent acute tooth on the palmar margin near the base, and, in the appendages of the seventh segment, the terminal portion of the outer pair is smaller and less expanded externally than in M. tenax, and the distal segment of the internal ramus of the inner pair is but little swollen at the base, and approaches the form seen in Asel- ity is worthy of mention as being on the Atlantic side of the Appalachian water-shed while M. tenax is vet known only from the Lakes. Art. XXXIX.— Pro/«5sor Tyndall on Germs.\ The author refers, in an introduction, to an inqury on the de- composition of vapors and the formation of actinic clouds by light, whereby he was led to experiment on the floating matter of the air. He refers to the experiments of Schwan, Schroder and Duseh, Schroder himself, to those of the illustrious Fiench clieinist Pas- teur, to the reasoning of Lister and its experimental verification, regarding the filtering power of the lungs ; from all of which he concluded, six years ago, that the power of developing life by the air, and its power of scattering light, would he found to go hand m hand. He thought the simple expedient of examining hy means of a beam of light," while the eye was kept sensitive by darkness, the character olf the medium in which their experiments were con- ducted, could not fail to be useful to workers in this field. But the method has not been much turned to account, and this year he thought it worth while to devote some time to the more com- plete demonstration of its utility. * From maiicuf. maimed, and Asellits. t Un the Optical Deportment of the Atmosphere in reference to the l henomena of Putrefaction and Infection. Abstract of a paper read before the Royal Society, January 13th. by Professor TyndaU, F.R.S. From Nature of Jan. 27 and ieb. 3. 306 Profissor TyndaH on Germs. He also wished to free his mind, and if possible the minds of others, from the uncertainty and confusion which now beset the doctrine of " spontaneous generation." Pasteur has pronounced it "a chimera," and expressed the undoubting conviction that, this being so, it is possible to remove parasitic diseases from tlie earth. To the medical profession, therefore, and through them to human- ity at large, this question is one of the last importance. But the state of medical opinion regarding it is not satisfactory. In a recent number of the British 3Iedical Journal, and iu answer to the question, " in what way is contagium generated and communi- cated ?" Messrs. Braidwood and Yacher reply that, notwithstand- ing " an almost incalculable amount of patient labor, the actual results obtained, especially as regards the manner of generation of contagium, have been most disappointing. Observers are even yet at variance whether these minute particles, whose discovery we have just noticed, and other disease germs, are always pro- duced from like bodies previously existing, or whether they do not, under certain favorable conditions, spring into existence de With a view to the possible diminution of the uncertainty thus described, the author submits, without further preface to the "" ' Society, and especially to those who study the etiology se, a description of the mode of pn ' -"— -^^ =« ^i-- , and the results to which it has let mber of chambers, or ( glass front, its top, bottom, the back is a little door which opens and closes on hinges, while into the sides are inserted two panes of glass, facing^ each other. The top is perforated in the middle by a hole two inches in diame- ter, closed air-tight by a sheet of india-rubber. This sheet is pierced in the middle by a pin, and through the pin-hole is passed the shank of a long pipette ending above in a small funnel. A cu- cular tin collar two inches in diameter and one inch and a halt high, surrounds the pipette, the space between both being ])ackca with cotton-wool moistened by glycerine. Thus the pipette, in moving up and down, is not only firmly clasped by the india- rubber, but it also passes through a stuffing box of sticky cotton- wool. The width of the aperture closed by the india-rubber secures the free lateral play of the lower end of the pipette. Int^ two other smaller apertures in the top of the case are inseited, air-tight, the open ends of two narrow tubes, intended to connect the interior space with the atmosphere. The tubes are bent several times up and down, so as to intercept and retain the [>arti- -ied by such feeble currents as changes of temperature luse to set in between the outer and the inner air. ^ottom of the box is pierced with two rows, sometimes with a single row of apertures, in which are fixed, air-tight, large test-tubes, intended to contain the liquid to be exposed to tiie action of the moteless air. On Sept. 10 the first case of this kind was closed. The passage of a concentrated beam across it through its two side winll^\\^ bOyai feociety, f disease, a description of the mode of procedu nquiry, and the results to which it has led. A number of chambers, or cases, were constructed, each .ghtc Professw Tyndall on Germs. 307 then showed the air within it to be laden with floating matter. On the 13th it was again examined. Before the beam entered, and after it quitted the case, its track was vivid in the air, but within the case it vanished. Three days of quiet sufficed to cause all the floating matter to be deposited on the sides and bottom, where it was retained by a coating of glycerine, with which the interior surface of the case had been purposely varnished. The test-tubes were then filled through the pipette, boiled for five minutes in a bath of brine or oil, and abandoned to the action of the raoteless air. During ebullition aqueous vapor rose from the liquid into the chamber, where it was for the most part condensed, the uncondensed portion escaping, at a low temperature through the bent tubes at the top. Before the brine was removed little stoppers of cotton-wool were inserted in the bent tubes, lest the entrance of the air into the cooling chamber should at first be for- cible enough to carry motes along with it. As soon, however, as the ambient temperature was assumed by the air within the case, the cotton-wool stoppers were removed. We have here the oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, ammonia, aqueous vapor, and all the other gaseous matters which mingle more or less with the air of a great city. We have them, more- over, " untortured" by calcination and unchanged even by filtra- tion or manipulation of any kind. The question now before us is, can air thus retaining all its gaseous mixtures, but self-cleansed from mechanically suspended matter, produce putrefaction ? To this question both the animal and vegetable worlds return a decided negative. Among vegetables, experiments have been made with hay, tur- nips, tea, coiFee, hops, repeated in various ways with both acid and alkaline intusions. Among animal substances are to be men- tioned many experiments with urine ; while beef, mutton, hare, rabbit, kidney, liver, fowl, pheasant, grouse, haddock, solo, sal- mon, cod, turbot, mullet, herring, whiting, eel, oyster have beiii all subjected to experiment. fe' ' ^ The result is that infusions of these substances exposed to the common air of the Royal Institution laboratory, maintained at a temperature of from 60° to 70° Fahr., all fell into putrefaction in the course of from two to four days. No matter where the infu- sions were placed, they were infallibly smitten. The number of the tubes containing the infusions was multiplied till it reached six hundred, but not one of them escaped infection. On the other hand, in no single instance did the air, which had been proved raoteless bv the searching beam, show itself to possess the least power of producing Bacterial life or the associated phenomena of putrefaction. The power of developing such life in atmospheric air, and the power of scattering light, are thus proved to be uidissolubly united. . ^^® sole condition necessary to cause these long-dormant infu- sions to swarm with active life is the access of the floating matter of the air. After having remained for four months as pellucid as Professor Tyndall on Germs. thus reduced to ocular demonstration. Let us inquire a little more closely into the character of the particles which produce the life. Pour Eau-de-Cologne into water, a white precipitate renders the liquid milky. Or, imitating Brucke, dissolve clean gum mastic in alcohol, and drop it into water, the mastic is precipitated and milkiness produced. If the solution be very strong the mastic separates in curds; but by gradually diluting the alcoholic solu- tion we finally reach a point where the milkiness disappears, the liquid assuming, by reflected light, a bright cerulean hue. It is, in point of fact, the color of the sky, and is due to a similar cause, namely, the scattering of light by particles, small in comparison to the size of the waves of light. When this liquid is examined by the highest microscopic power it seems as uniform as distilled water. The mastic particles, though innumerable, entirely elude the microscope. At right angles to a luminous beam passing among the particles they dis- charge perfectly polarised light. The optical deportment of the floating matter of the air proves it to be composed, in part, of particles of this excessively minute character. When the track of a parallel beam in dusty air is looked at horizontally through a Nicol's prism, in a direction perpendicular to the beam, the longer diagonal of the prism being vertical, a considerable portion of the light from the finer matter is extinguished. The coarser motes, on the other hand, flash out with greater force, because of the increased darkness of the space around them. It is among the finest ultra-microscopic particles that the author shows the matter potential as regards the development of Bacterial life is to be sought. But though they are beyond the reach of the microscope, the r these particles, foreign to the atmosphere but floating in It, IS as certain as if they could be felt between the fingep, or seen by the naked eye. Supposing them to augment in magnitude until they come, not only within range of the microscope, but within range of the unaided senses. Let it be assumed that our knowledge of them under these circumstances remains as defective as it is now — that we do not know whether they are germs, parti- cles of dead organic dust, or particles of mineral matter. Suppose a vessel (say a flower-pot) to be at hand filled with nutritious earth, with which we mix our unknown particles ; and that m forty-eight hours subsequently buds and V)l:i(les of \vell-*«>il. Supix'-i- tli'' e\}'iii- ment when repeated over and over airain to yield the ^.iiuf un- varying result. What would be our comcIumod y >liotil.l we regard those living plants as the products of de:t1 ItMiig seeds ? The reply is unavoidable. We should undoubtedly coq- conclude that they naa oeen " spontaneously generated." This reasoijing applies word for word to the development of Bacteria from that floating matter which the electric beam reveals in the air, and in the absence of which no ]>acterial life has been generated. There seems- no flaw in this reasoning ; and it is so simi)le as to render it unlikely that the notion of Bacterial life developed from dead di members of a great scientific profession. A novel mode of experiment has been here pursued, and be urged that the conditions laid down by other investig this field, w •" ■ ■ - , vhich have led to different results, have not been strictly attended to. To secure accuracy in relation to these alleged results, the latest words of a writer on this question, who has influenced medical thought both in this country and in America, are quoted. " We know," he says, "that boiled turnip or hay- infusions exposed to ordinary air, exposed to filtered air, to cal- cined air, or shut off altogether from contact with air, are more or less prone to swarm with Bacteria and vibriones in the course of from two to six days." Who the " we" are who possess this knowledge is not stated. The author is certainly not among the number, though he has sought anxiously for knowledge of the Kind. He thus tests the statements in succession. And first, with regard to the filtered air. A group of twelve large test-tubes were caused to pass air-tight tlirough a slab of wood. The wood was coated with cement, in which, while hot, a heated " propagating glass" resembling a large bell jar was im- bedded. The air within the jar was pumped out several times, air filtered through a plug of cotton-wool being permitted to supply Its place. The test-tubes contained infusions of hay, turnip, beef, and mutton -three of each— twelve in all. Thev are as i-har and cloudless at the present moment as thev wetv \\\m\\ the day of their introduction; while twelve similar' tul>L's. prtp.ircd ;it the same time in precisely the same way and exposod to the ordinary air are clogged with mycelium, mould, and Burttrln. With regard to the 'calcined air, a similar propagating glass sions^ The "glass" was exhausted and carefully tilled with air Which had passed through a red-hot platinum tube, eontiuning a roll of red-hot platinum gauze. Tested by the searching beam, tn<- calcuied air was found quite free from floating matter. Not while twelve similar tubes placed outside have fallen into rotten- Professor Tyndall c hay and turnip-juice, and water of yeast, were freed from their floating matter in this way. The infusions were subsequently boiled and permitted to remain in pontact with the calcined air. They are quite unchanged to the present hour, while the same infusions exposed to common air became mouldy and rotten along ago. ft has been affirmed that turnip and hay-infusions rendered sligli'ly alkaline are particularly prone to exhibit the phenomena of spontaneous generation. This was not found to be the casein the present investigation. Many such infusions have been preyjared, and they have continued for months without sensible alteration. Finally, with regard to infusions wholly withdrawn from air, a group of test-tubes, containing different infusions, was boiled under a bell-jar filled with filtered air, and from which the air was subsequently removed as far as possible by a good air-pump. They are now as pellucid as they were at the time of their ]>repara- ^' ■' ' ) months ago, while a group of corresponding le laboratory air have all tallen int< tubes exposed i There is still another form of experiment on which great weight has been laid— that of hermetically sealed tubes. On April 6 last, a discussion on the " (Term Theory of Disease" was opened before the Pathological Society of London. The meeting was attended by many distinguished medical men, some of whom were pro- foundly influenced by the arguments, and none of whom disputed the facts brought forward against the theory on that occasion. The following important stinTmary of these was then given:— " With the view of settling these questions, therefore, we may kidney, 'or liver; w-e may place it in a flask whose neck is drawn out and narrowed in the blowpipe-flame, we may boil the fluid, seal the vessel during ebullition, and keeping it in a warm place, may await the result, as I have often done. After a variable time the previously heated fluid within the hermetically sealed flask swarms more or less plentifully with Bacteria and' allied organ- Previous to reading this statement the author had o[)er;ited upon tubes of hay and turnip-infusions, and upon twenty-one tubes of beef, mackereb eel, oyster, oat-meal, malt, and potato, hermeti cally sealed while boiling, not by the blowpipe, but by the far more handy spirit-lamp flame. In no case was any appearance whatever o^ Bacteria or allied organisms observed. The perusal of the discussion just referred to caused the author to turn again to muscle, liver, and kidney, with a view of varying and multiply- ing the evidence. Fowl, pheasant, snipe, partridge, plover, wdd duck, beef, mutton, heart, tongue, lungs, brains, sweetbread, tripe, the crystalline lens and vitreous humor of an ox, herring, haddock, mullet, codfish, sole, were all embraced in the experiments. There was neither mistake nor ambiguity about the result. One huu- Professor Tyndall on Germs. 311 dred and thirty-nine of the flasks operated on were exhibited, and not one of this cloud of witnesses oifers the least countenance to the assertion that liquids within flasks, boiled and hermetically sealed, swarm, subsequently, more or less plentifully with Bacteria and allied organisms. The evidence funiished by this mass of experiments, that errors either of preparation or observation have been committed, is, it is submitted, very strong. But to err is human ; and in an inquiry so difticult and fiaught with such momentous issues, it is not error, but the persistence in error by any of us, for dialectic ends, that is to be deprecated. The auther shows by illustrations the risks of error run by himself On Oct. 21 he opened the back- door of a case containing six test-tubes filled with an infusion of turnip which had remained perfectly clear for three weeks, while three days sufficed to crowd six similar tubes exposed to mote- laden air with Bacteria. With a small pipette he took specimens from the pellucid tubes, and placed them under the microscope. One of them yielded a field of Hacterinl life, monstrous in its copi- ousness. For a long time he tried vainly to detect any source of error, and was perfectly prepared to abandon the unvarying in- ference from all the other experiments, and accept the result as a clear exception to what had previously appeared to be a general law. The cause of his perplexity was finally traced to the tiniest speck of an infusion containing Bacteria, which had clung by cjtpillary attraction to the point of one of his pipettes. Again, three tubes containing infusions of turnip, hay, and mutton, were boiled on Nov. 2 under a bell-jar containing air so carefully filtered that the most searching examination by a con- centrated beam failed to reveal a particle of floating matter At the present time every one of the tubes is thick with mycelium and covered with mould. Here surely we have a case of spontane- ous generation. Let us look to its history. After the air has been expelled from a boiling liquid it is diificult to continue the ebullition without '' bmnping." The hquid remains still for intervals, and then rises with sudden energy. It did so in the case now under coiisiderutiou, and one of the tubes boiled over, the liquid over-sprfa.linu- the nsinous surface in which the bell-jar was imbedded, and on whidi, -loubt- less, germs had fallen. For three weeks the infusions lui.l re- erfectly clear. At tht renewino : the air of the jar, it WIS exham 5ted , and retilled bv fresh air whicl 1 had passed through a pli .g of cott on-wool. As the air icted b^ llspotsofi.eniciUium remarkec )n the liquid whic •h had" S>oile. er. It was at once I that the experim. ■nt was iger ■ous one, as the enter- ing air w ould probably deta. ■ of tlti "Sp( )res of the penieillium and diff-use them in the b. 41-j:ir. This , therefore, filled very slowly, . •o as to render tin ■ a ri dnimum. Next day, however. bsprvc : the bottom of one of the three ■ tubes, namely tha t containing the hay-infusion. It has 312 Professor Tyndall on Germs. by this time grown so as to fill a large portion of the tube. For nearly a month longer the two tubes containing the turnip and mutton-infusions maintained their transparency unimpaired. Late in December the mutton-infusion, which was in dangerous prox- imity to the outer mould, showed a tuft upon its surface. The beef-infusion continued bright and clear for nearly a fortnight longer. The recent cold weather caused me to add a third gas- stove to the two which had previously warmed the room in which the experiments are conducted. The warmth of this stove played upon one side of the bell-jar : and on the day after the lighting of the stove, the beef-infusion gave birth to a tuft of mycelium. In this case the small spots of penicillium might have readily escaped attention ; and had they done so we should have had three cases of " spontaneous generation" far more striking than many that have been adduced. In further illustration of the dangers incurred in this field of inquiry the author refers to the excellent paper of Dr. Roberts on Biogenesis, in the " Philosophical Transactions" for 1874. Dr. Roberts fills the bulb of an ordinary pipette to about two-thirds of its capacity with the infusion to be examined. In the neck of the pipette he places a plag of dry cotton-wool. He then hermeti- cally seals the neck and dips the bulb into boiling water or hot oil, where he permits it to remain for the requisite time. Here we have no disturbance from ebullition, and no loss by evaporation. The bulb is removed from the hot water and permitted to co(?l. The sealed end of the neck is then filed off, the cotton-wool alone interposing between the infusion and the atmosphere. The arrangement is beautiful, but it has one weak pomt- Cotton-wool free from germs is not to be found, and the plug em- ployed by Dr. Roberts infallibly contained them. In the gentle movement of the air to and fro as the temperature changed, or by any shock, jar, or motion to which the pipette might be subjected, we'have certainly a cause sufiicient to detach a germ now and then from the cotton-wool which would fall into the infusion and produce its effect. Probably, also, condensation occurred at times in the neck of the pipette ; the water of condensation carrying back from the cotton-wool the seeds of life. The fact of fertiliza- tion being so rare as Dr. Roberts found it to be is a proof of t'^e care with which his experiments were conducted. But he did find cases of fertillization after prolonged exposure to the boiling tem- perature ; and this caused him to come to the conclusion that under certain rare conditions spontaneous generation may occur. He also found that an alkalised hay-infusion was so difticult to sterilise that it was capable of withstanding the boiling tempera- sure for hours without losing its power of generating life. IJie most careful experiments have been made with this infusion, i ■■ Roberts is certainly ( power. But in the p completely sterilise the i ppoari Ihouj Professor Tyndall on Germs. SIS Summing up this portion of his inquiry, the author remarks that he will hardly be charged with any desire to limit the power and potency of matter. But holding the notions he does upon this point, it is all the more incumbent on him to affirm that as far ; inquiry has hitherto penetrated, life has never been proved to - "ir independently of antecedent life. ough the author had no reason to doubt the general diffusion ui germs in the atmosphere, he thought it desirable to place the point beyond question. At Down, Mr. Uarwin, Mr. Francis Darwin ; at High Elms, Sir John Lubbock ; at Sherwood, near Tunbridge Wells, Mi-. Siemens ; at Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park, Mr. Rollo Russell; at Heathfield Park, Messrs. Hamilton; at Greenwich Hospital, Mr. Hirst; at Kew, Dr. Hooker; and at the Crystal Palace, Mr. Price, kindly took charge of infusions, every one of which became charged with organisms. To obtain more definite insight regarding the diffusion of atmospheric germs, a square wooden tray was pierced with 100 holes, into each of w-hich was dropped a short test-tube. On Oct. 23, thirty of these tubes were filled with an infusion of hay, thirty-five with an infusion of turnip, and thirty-five with an infusion of beef. The tubes, with their infusions, *had been previously boiled, ten at a time, in an oil-bath. One hundred circles were marked on paper so as to form a map of the tray, and every day the state of each tube was registered upon the corresponding circle. In the follow- ing description the term " cloudy " is used to denote the first stage '■ ■ ' The term " muddy " is One tube of the 1 00 was first singled out and rendered muddy. It belonged to the beef group, and it was a whole day in advance of all the other tubes. The progress of putrefaction was first registered on Oct, 26 ; the " map " then taken may be thus de- ^^ Hay. — Of the thirty specimens exposed one had become 'muddy" — the seventh in the middle i-ow reckoning from the side of the tray nearest the stove. Six tubes remained perfectly clear between this muddy one and the stove, proving that differences of warmth may be overridden by other causes. Every ''"e of the other tubes containing the hay infusion showed spots very muddy, two of them being in the row next the stove, one four rows distant, and the remaining one seven rows away. Besides these six tubes had become clouded. There was no mould on any of the tubes. -See/.— One tube of the thirty-five was quite muddy, in the seventh row from the stove. There were three cloudy tubes, While seven of them bore spots of mould. As a general rule organic infusions exposed to the air during jhe autumn remained for two days or more perfectly clear. A/oubtless from the first germs fell into them, but they required time to be hatched. This "period of clearness may be called the penod of latency," and indeed it exactly corresponds with what 314 Professor Tyndall on Oerms. is understood by this term in medicine. Toward the end of the period of latency, the fall into a state of disease is comparatively sudden ; the infusion passing from perfect clearness to cloudiness more or less dense in a few hours. Thus the tube placed in Mr. Darwin's possession was clear at 8.30 A. M. on Oct. 19, and cloudy at 4.30 p. m. Seven hours, more- over, after the first record of our tray of tubes, a marked change had occurred. It may be thus desenbed : — Instead of one, eight of the tubes containing hay-infusion had fallen into uniform inud- diness. Twenty of these had produced Bacterial slime, which had fallen to the bottom, every tube containing the slime being covered by mould. Three tubes only remained clear, but with mould upon their surfaces. The muddy turnip-tubes had increased from four to ten ; seven tubes were clouded, while eighteen of them remained clear, with here and there a speck of mould on the surface. Of the beef, six were cloudy and one thickly muddy, while spots of mould had formed on the majority of the remaining tubes. Fifteen hours subsequent to this observation, viz. on the morning of Oct. 27, all the tubes containing hay-infusion were smitten, though in different degrees, some of them being much more turbid than others. Of the turnip-tubes, three only remained unsmitten, and two of these had mould upon their surfaces. Only one of the thirty-five beef-infusions remained intact. A change of occupancy, moreover, had occurred in the tube which first gave way. Its muddiness remained gray for a day and a half, then it changed to bright yelloAV green, and it maintained this color to the end. On the 27th every tube of the hundred was smitten, the majority with uniform turbidity; some, however, with mould above and slime below, the intermediate liquid being tolerably clear. The whole process bore striking resemblance to the propa- gation of a plague among a population, the attacks being successive and of different degrees of virulence. From the irregular manner in which the tubes are attacked, we may infer that, as regards quantity, the distribution of the germs in the air is not uniform. The singling out, moreover, of one tube of the hundred by the particular Bacteria that develop a green pigment, shows that, as regards quality, the distribution is not uniform. The same absence of uniformity was manifested in the struggle for existence ))etween the Bacteria and the penicU- lium. In some tubes the former were triumphant ; in other tubes of the same infusion the latter was triumphant. It would seem also as if a want of uniformity as regards vital vigor prevailed. With the self-same infusion the motions of the Bacteria in some tubes were exceedingly languid, while in other tubes the motions resembled a rain of projectiles, being so rapid and violent as to be followed with ditticulty by the eye. Reflecting on the whole of this, the author concludes that the germs float through the atmosphere in groups or clouds, with spaces more sparsely filled between them. The touching of a nutritive fluid by a Bacterial cloud would naturally have a different eft'ect from the touching ot Professor Tyndall on Germs. it by the interspace between two clouds. But mottled sky, the various portions of the landsca visited by shade, so, in the long run, are tl tray touched by the Bactei-ial clouds, the ] fection of them all being the consequence. these results with the experiments ■ ^ of the cause of so-called spontaneous generation, and with other Oil the 9th of November a second tray containing one hundred tubes filled with an infusion of mutton was exposed to the air. On the morning of the 11th six of the ten nearest the stove had given way to putrefaction. Three of the rows most distant from the stove had yielded, while here and there over the tray particular tubes were singled out and smitten by the infection. Of the wh(i]e tray of one hundred tubes, twenty-seven were either muddy or cloudy on the 11th. Thus, doubtless, in a contagious atmos- phere, are individuals successively struck down. On the 12th all the tubes had given way, but the differences in their contents were extraordinary. All of them contained Bacteria, some i'e\\, others in swarms. In some tubes they were slow and sickly in their motions, in some apparently dead, while in others they darted about with rampant vigor. These differences are to be referred to changes in the germinal matter, for the same infusion was presented everywhere to the air. Here also we have a pictuie of what occurs during an epidemic, the difference in number and gy of the Bacterial swarms i-esembling the varying intensity ^-^ disease. It becomes obvious from these experiments that of two individuals of the same population, exposed to a contagious atmosphere, the one may be severely, the other lightly attacked, though the two individuals may be as identical as regards suscepti- bility as two samples of one and the same mutton infusion. The author traces still further the parallelism of these actions with the progress of infectious disease. The Times of January nth contained a letter on Typhoid Fever signed "M.D.," in which occurs the following remarkable statement : — " In one part of it (Edinburgh), congregated together and inhabited by the lowest of the population, there are, according to the Corpora- tion return for 1874, no less than 14,319 houses or dwellings — many under one roof, on the 'flat' system — in which there are np house connections whatever with the street sewers, and, consequently, no water-closets. To this day, therefore, all the excrementitious and other refuse of the inhabitants is collected the passage of a Bacterial two clouda. Certain"' capricea" in the behavior of dressed wounds may >e accounted for in this way. Under the heading " Nothing new under ' Prof. Huxley has just sent me the foUowmg remarkable extract :— energy of the ^^^, u^^ ueuBu gauz leere i.unuiiiB»cu. jd ganze Tage vollig reinen iiuftverhaltnisse wechaeln." (Ehrenberg, "Infusions Thierchen," 1838, p. 525.) ^ne coincidence of phraseology is surprising, for I knew nothing of Ehrenberg 8 conception. My " clouds," however, are but smaU miniatures of his. 316 Professor TyndaU on Germs. in pails or pans, and remains in their midst, generally in a partitioned-otf comer of the living room, until the next day, when it is taken down to the streets and emptied into the Corporation carts. Drunken and vicious though the population be, herded together like sheep, and with the filth collected and kept for twenty-four hours in their very midst, it is a remarkable fact that typhoid fever and diphtheria are simply unknown in these wretched hovels." i analogue in the following experiment, which is representative of a class. On Nov. 30 a quantity of animal refuse, " " ' . - • . placed in two 1 nber containing embracing beef, fish, rabbit, hare, was placed in two large . the action of the foul " sewer gas" emitted by their two putrid com- panions. On Christmas-day the four infusions were limpid. The end of the pipette was then dipped into one of the putrid tubes, and a quantity of matter comparable in smallness to the pock- lymph held on the point of a lancet was transferred to the turnip. Its clearness was not sensibly aifected at the time ; but on the 26th it was turbid throughout. On the 27th a speck from the infected turnip w^as transferred to the whiting ; on the 28th disease had taken entire possession of the whiting. To the present hour the beef and mutton tubes remain as limpid as distilled water. Just as in the case of the living men and women in Edinburgh, no amount of fetid gas had the power of propagating the plague, so long as the organisms which constitute the true contagiam did not gain access to the infusions. The universal prevalence of the germinal matter of Bacteria in has been demonstrated with the utmost evidence by the experiments by Dr. Burdon Sanderson. But the germs i are in a very diff nt, from those in air. In water they are thoroughly v ifferent condition, as regards readiness for devek . ......1 and ready, under the proper conditions, to pass rapidly i finished organisms. In air they are more or less desiccated, and require a period of preparation more or less long to bring them up to the starting-point of the water-germs. The rapidity oj development in an infusion infected by either a speck of liquid containing Bacteria or a drop of water is extraordinary. On Jan. 4 a thread of glass almost as fine as a hair was dipped into a cloudy turnip infusion, and the tip only of the glass fiber was introduced into a large test-tube containing an infusion of red mullet. Twelve hours subsequently the perfectly pellucid liquid was cloudy throughout. A second test-tube containing the same infusion was infected with a single drop of the distilled water furnished by Messrs. Hopkin and Williams ; twelve hours also sufficed to cloud the infusion thus treated. Precisely the same ring with the sai days' exposure C. H. F. Peters — Discovery of c sion was prepared by digesting thin slices in distiilei temperature of 120" F. " The infusion was divided between four large test-tubes, in one of which it was left unboiled, in another boiled for five minutes, in the two remaining ones boiled, and after cooling infected with one drop of beef-infusion containing Bacteria. In twenty-four hours the unboiled tube and the two infected ones were cloudy, the unboiled tube being the most turbid of the three. The infusion here was peculiarly limpid after digestion ; for turnip it was quite exceptional, and no amount of searching with the microscope " ^ • ■ ill germs were there fie day which, suitably nourished, passe( swarms without number. Five days have not sufficed to produce an effect approximately equal to this in the boiled tube, which w;is uninfected but exposed to the common laboratory air. There cannot, moreover, be a doubt that the germs in the air differ widely among themselves as regai'ds ^^reparec^/i^ss for devel- opment. 8ome are fresh, others old ; some are dry, others moist. Infected by such uenns the same infusion would require different lengths of time to develop Bacteiial life. This remark applies to and explains the different degrees of rapidity with which epidemic disease acts ui)ou different people. In some the hatching-period, if it may be called such, is long, in some short, the differences depending upon the different degrees of preparedness of the contagium. The author refers with particular satisfaction to the untiring patience, the admirable mechanical skill, the veracity in thought, word, and deed, displayed throughout this first section of a large and complicated inquirv by his assistant, Mr. John Cottrell, who was zealously aided by his junior colleague, Mr. Frank Yalter. Note. Jan. 31.— The notion that the author limited himself to temperatures of 60° and 70° Fahr. is an entire misconception. But more of this anon. Art. Xl..~I)iscovery of a new Planet- by C. H. F. Pete: (i^rom a letter to one of the Editors, dated Litchfield Obser^ tory of Hamilton College, Clinton, X. Y., Feb. 2(5, 1876.) .A new planet, eleventh magnitude, was first seen here night of the 20th bwi- y nieans of the meridian circle. Am. Jour. Sci.-Thibd Sbbibs, Vol. XI, N^ Scientific IntelUg SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. L Chemistry and Physics. 1. On a (JrystalUzed Hydrate of Hydrochloric acid.— Pmnn^ and PucHOT have observed that, when a saturated solution of hy- drochloric acid gas is cooled to — 21° or —22° C, the dry gas be- ing passed continuously into the liquid, after a few minutes the tem- perature rises to — 18° and an abundant crystallization begins, dur- ing which the temperature remains constant at — 18°. Before the crystallization commences, there is always observed this lowering '' "" ' " ' 1 temperature, which is a phenomenon analogov ' saturation, A synthetic experiment showed that, to produce the , the water absorbed about its own weight of the gas ; and hence showed that the probable formula was HCl. (H2 0)2- In crystals, t the air the crystals decompose readily, giving off dense fumes of hydrogen chloride. In a flask, kept near 0°, they slowly melt, the temperature remaining at —18°; in one experiment 115 grams of the crystals required an hour and a quarter to melt. Water dis- solves them readily. Since they sink in the solution where they are formed, they must be denser than it. They set free the gas in melting, and hence must contain more of it than the mother liquors. In the analysis, a known weight of the drained crystals was treated with a definite quantity of distilled water, in amount sufficient to prevent the evolution of gas. The chlorine was then determined in the solution, and from this the ratio between the HCl and the HgO could be calculated. In the first two determinations, the ratio was 1:2-19; in the second it was 1:2-085 and 1:2-076. Hence the authors conclude upon the formula HC1.(H3 0)2; this is the best defined hydrate of hydrochloric acid yet observed. A mixture of snow two parts and hydrochloric acid one part gives a temperature of -32*C.; or of -35° if the materials are pre- viously cooled. — G. a., Ixxxii, 45, Jan, 1876. g. r. b. 2. O/i the Decomposition of Water by jPiati/mm.—SAim^E Claike Deville and Debray state that if potassium cyanide be heated in a glass tube to 500° or 600°, in the vicinity of a boat full of warm water, the tube having been previously exhausted, the pressure rises to half an atmosphere, and remains constant for hours; but if, be- fore the operation, some platinum sponge has been mixed with the cyanide, hydrogen is abundantly evolved, and a potassio-platinum cyanide is formed. This hydrogen contains from ^ to 12 per cent of carbonous oxide, produced according to the following reaction, (KCN)3+(H2O)^-K2CO3+(NH3)2-4-H3+C0 If the principal reaction in the foregoing experiment be written— (KCy), + (H,0)2=PtCy,(KCy), + (KOH),+H_, it would appear as if the platinum decomposed water under the in- fluence of the potassic cyanide. But the authors show from ther- mal considerations that the potassium hydrate formed is really the important product ; that in its formation the greatest amount ot Chemistry and Physics. 319 heat is developed, and hence it is really the determinant of the re- action. From the same causes, a boiling concentrated solution of potassium cyanide attacks platinum, setting free hydrogen ; an ex- periment the authors recommend as a convenient one to illustrate the principles of thermo-chemistry upon the lecture-table. So also a boiling solution of mercuric cyanide does not attack platinum unless potassium cyanide be present ; then the mercury at once separates. — (J, B., Ixxxii, 241, Jan. 1876. g. f. b, 3. On a New Compound of Sulphur and Oxygen. — For many years it has been known that the action of sulphur on sulphuric oxide or on disulphuric acid produces an intense blue color. R. Weber has successfully investigated the cause of this color, and has shown that it is due to a new oxide of sulphur which he has isolated. To prepare it, a portion of sulphuric oxide is prepared, containing some sulphuric acid, and into this is thrown, in small portions, carefully dried flowers of sulphur. At the instant of con- tact the sulphur is converted into dark blue liquid drops which sink to the bottom of the liquid and there soHdify. Care should be taken to keep the temperature at 15° C, since below this point the whole liquid solidifies, and above it the blue body decomposes. After the operation, the excess of liquid is poured off, the blue crys- talline crusts are drained and the excess of sulphuric oxide driven off at a temperature not exceeding blood heat. Bluish green crusts are thus obtained, which are very friable and which have a structure similar to malachite. They decompose without fusion slowly at ordinary temperatures, more rapidly on heating, evolving sulphur- ous oxide and leaving sulphur behind. In a cool place the decom- position is so slow^ that the substance niay readily be weighed for analysis. Moist air decomposes it rapidly and it hisses when thrown into water. Alcohol and ether also decompose it, and set free sul- phur. A mean of five closely accordant analyses showed that it contained 5M2 per cent of sulphur; thus giving it the formula ^gOg. The author names it sulphui 4. On the Purification of Carbon disulphide.—F rif^ubbug pro- poses to effect the final purification of carbon disulphide by treating jt with fuming nitric acid. The crude disulphide is first purified py repeated distillation with a vegetable fat, such as palm oil, and 18 then treated with the acid and frequently agitated. After twenty- tour hours two layers are observed, nearly of the same color, the red vapors of the acid having been absorbed by the CSg. If water J'e added, the disulphide becomes reddish violet, and this separated irom the acid, washed, and gently heated, gives up pure disulphide m the distillate, while the violet-colored solution of the disulphide remains behind, and is not broken up except at a higher tempera- t iY*^i • ^^^^ colorless distillate, washed with water dried and dis- tilled, is chemically pure. The author is investigating the solvent additional facts regai 320 Scienitfic Intelligence. power of this substance for gaseous substances. — Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 1616, Jan. 1876. g. f. b. 5. The New Meted Gallium.— In the session of the French Academy on September 20, the Secretary opened a sealed note de- posited by Lecoq de Boisbaudeak, the first paragraph of which reads thus: — "Day before yesterday, on Friday the 27th of August, 1875, between three and four o'clock in the afternoon, I obtained indications of the probable existence of a new^ simple body among the products of the chemical examination of a blende coming from the mine of Pierrefitte, valley of Argeles, Pyrenees." The evidence relied on to prove this discovery, a part of which evidence was given in the sealed note and another part in a note read at the same meeting, is: (1) the oxide (or perhaps a basic salt) is precipi- tated slowly by metallic zinc in a solution containing chlorides and sulphates; (2) its salts are easily precipitated by barium carbonate in the cold ; and (3) it gives a spectrum showing two violet lines of wave lengths 417 and 404 respectively. In all its other chemi- cal reactions, it closely resembles zinc; though in the precipitations metal thus indicated, Lecoq de Boisbaudran gave the Hum. In a more recent pape" '- -'- ^^^^=~-^i '^^- the new metal, wliich he has 1 zinc. From it he has prepared a salt which he believes to be gal- lium-alum. It is soluble in cold water, but is decomposed on heat- ing, unless acetie acid be present. It crystallizes in octahedrons and cubes, presenting the appearance of common alum, especially under the microscope ; the crystals do not polarize light. Placed in a super-saturated solution of ammonio-aluminum alum, they act as nuclei and begin to grow. Treated witli ammonia, a part only of the oxide is thrown down. In ammoniacal solution, the metal is precipitated by electrolysis on the negative electrode. In the first trial 1-6 milligrams were deposited in 4-J hours; in the second, 3-4 milligrams was deposited in 5 hours 40 minutes. (This sample was submitted to the Academy.) The metal adhered strongly to the platinum on which it w-as deposited. When burnished Tts surhn'o is brilliant, and has a color between silver and platinum. \Mth ;i feeble current, the metal comes down frosted and crystalline. It does not decompose water at ordinary temperatures, and tarni>lu'> slowly in the open air. With JlCl, it evolves hydrogen. On the evidence of the alum, he fixes the formula of the oxide as GaoOg, and assigns the metal to the aluminum group. In a sul»sequent note, the author gives the results of the more accurate measure- ment of the wave-lengths of the two lines of the gallium spectrum, being the stronger.— C. i?., Ixxxi, 493 (Sept.) 1100, (De< Ixxxii, 168, Jan. 1876. c 6. Gonductihility of Gases.— M. A. Wikkelmann h ured the conductibilit'y of gases for heat by an apparatus of Stephan, except that a peculiar manometer and m Chemistry and Physics. 3 is used. The apparatus consists of a brass cylinder S( enclosed in a second concentric iiider. The top of the inner cylinder may be unscrewed and ir tarries a conical cavity in which is placed a rubber cork Avitli a hole through it. A glass tube passes through this hole and a metallic cap screwed on below the rubber presses it against the glass. A similar closure carries the tube through the outer cylinder. The latter is connected with a mercury pump. A com- parison of the time and variations of the pressure when the outer cylinder was immersed in ice-water gave the following coefficients of conductibility : Name. Conduct. Air -0000525 Hydrogen -0003324 Carbonic Acid -0000317 Ethvl -0000414 Marsh Gas ..-0000647 Nitric Oxide -0000460 Carbonic Oxide -00005 10 Oxygen -0000563 Nitrous Oxide -0000363 Nitrogen -0000524 —Pogg. Ann. clvi, 497. e. c. p. 7. ITiermal Properties of Liquids. — M. Pictet has applied the mechanical theory of heat to the study of volatile liquids, mak- ing use of the experiments of Regnault. and deduces the following simple relations between their latent heats, atomic weight and va- il.) The cohesion of all liquids is constant. (2.) The diiferential coefficient of the Naperian logarithm of the tension divided by the temperature is constant for all liquids when referred to the same pressure and temperature. (3.) The latent heat of all liquids referred to tiie same pres- sure, multiplied by the atomic weight referred to the same tem- perature, gives a constant product.^ (4.) For all liquids the difference of the internal latent heats at any two temperatures, multiplied by the atomic weight is a con- It thus appears that quantities at first sight wholly independent are really connected by verv simple relations, which dispense with long empirical formulas based on observations more or less open to criticism. Furthennore, admitting the law of Dulong and Petit for specific heats, we can further say that the latent heat of all liquids are multiples of their specific heats.— 7?/W. Univ., ccxvii, 66. 8. Dependence of Electrical Resistaitce on the Motion of the Conductor. — M, Edlu.nd has brought to bear a new argument in "* 'i '"nductor is affected by its motion. Water is allowed to 322 Scientific Intelligence. flow through a long tube having three electrodes of gold wire ad- mitted at its ends and center. A battery of two Daniell's cells has one terminal connected with the center electrode, and the other with two of the terminals of a delicate differential astatic galvanometer. The two end electrodes are connected with the other terminals of the galvanometer. The current from the bat- tery divides, and half passes through the tube in each direction. By suitably varying the resistance,"the galvanometer needle will now be at rest. When the water is caused to flow through tlie tube, however, the resistance in one direction will be increased, and that in the other diminished, since, according to Edlund's theory the current is proportional to the amount of ether flowing through a given section per second. Accordingly the needle should deviate, as, in fact, it does. To eliminate the eifects of polarization, the current was inverted without changing the re- sult. That the deviations may be regular, it is essential that the liquid should have a great resistance and the amount of deviation is almost independent of this resistance. Two series of observa- tions were made, one with distilled water, the other with alcohol and water, and gave similar results. A third series with aque- duct water gave the same result. Penally, equal currents were sent in opposite directions through the pipe, when they produced no effect on the needle, but as soon as the lic^uid was set in motion a deviation was always obtained indicating that the resistance was greater in one direction than in the other. These two meth- ods of observation lead to the same result, foreseen by the theory of Edlund, namely, that the galvanic resistance diminishes if the conductor moves in the same direction as the galvanic current Mag., -Moyal Sicedish Acad., III., 9. Electric Spark with large Batteries.— Messrs. v\ abrex dk LA Rtte and H, W. 3Iuller presented to the Royal Society at a recent meeting a paper having the following title : On the length of the Spark from a Battery of 600, 1200, ISOO and 2400 rod- chloride of Silver, and some Phenomena attending the discharge of 5640 cells. A year ago some experiments on th of the discharge in vacuo of a battery of 1080 cells were ial-.- This battery has now been augmented to 5640 cells, ai other batteries will soon be added making 9120 cells. I completed 2400 cells and charged them up in a single da; were exactly in the same condition as to electro-motive foi internal resistance, consequentlv they afforded the means < ing the truth of the law of the' length of the spark in a i more efficacious than had hitherto been obtained, the mor cially as by the use of paraffin corks and other precaution-^ ' obtained an excellent insulation. A discharger with a mien screw was constructed by which the length of spark c<> measured to -001 of an inch, or by estimation to one-tenth quantity. In making measurements the terminals were sei Chemistry and Physics. 323 to a greater distance than the anticipated striking-distance and gradually approached until the spark passed. The discharger was then detached from the battery, and after reading the scale, connected with a separate battery of 10 cells with a detector-gal- vanometer in circuit. The terminals were again appi-oacbed until the motion of the galvanometer indicated contact between them. The scale was again read, and the chanace in reading gave the required length of spark. With 600, 1200, 1800 and 2400 cells the striking-distances were found to be -0083, -0130, -0:^5 and •0535 inches. These numbers are nearly proportional to the square of the number of cells, which would give the distances 0033, 0132, •0528. The length of spark is much influenced by the form volving c mutator, or a double key dischai-ger. When the point was negative, a glow in form like a paraboloid was seen surrounding it long before the spark passed, and as the distance was diminished gradually extending to the positive ter- minal. With 1800 cells the glow was seen at a distance of -0545 and with 2400 cells at a distance of '0865 inches. Moreover when the disc was positive it became covered with a peach-like bloom which became stronger in the center as the terminals were approached, giving rise to Newton's rings. This effect was next studied with the whole series of 5640 ceds. The glow was now visible at 1-073 in. and the spark passed at -139. Replacing the flat disc by one that was slightly convex the glow occurred at 1'124 in. and the spark at -140. Reversing, the current gave sparks of -154 and -164 in. To ascertain whether a current really passed when the glow appeared, vacuum-tubes were interposed when they were illumin- ated even before the glow appeared. Of course the striking dis- tance was in this case shortened. With a hydrogen tube having a resistance of 190,000 ohms the glow occurred at 939 and the spark at -092 inches. A 31-inch tube was brilliantly illuminated when interposed between one terminal and the battery, when the rminals were separated to the extreme range of the discharger ( ■''■"■'" ■ • "' the ] • - - Considei and before any glow was visible at the negati^ I current was obtained with the negative point 5'] plate 6 in. in diameter, experien ance of the tubes, and it soon appeared that this resistance rap increased as the current passed. After a time, however, 1 recovered their original resistance. Ultimately it was foun. be better to discard the indications of the i n the appearance of a luminosity in the tubes placed )f Wheatstone's bridge as soon as the insertion of a distance was made in the other. A curious conclusion Hu the law that the length of spark is proportional to f the number of cells, if it proves to be correct. One ive a s])ark about -0000000 1 in. long while a hundred 324 Scientific Intelligence. thousand which come within the limit of experimental possibiUty would give a spark about 92 inches long. Probably a million would never be made but they should give a spark 9166 inches or 764 feet long. — Kature., xiii, 277. e. c. p. 10. Acoustics. Letter to the editors by Professor A. M. Maykk, dated Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey, March 17th, 1876. — Gentlemen: Having in hand researches whose completion will occupy several months, I desire to place on reeoi J my invention of the two following methods of research. The tiist I for the determination of the relatice intensities of souiuJs m I pitch. The second is a method of determiu las after I have finished the 3 all my leisure. , ^ ir a slip of gold or alumin- ium foil, is placed anywhere between the centers of origin of two sounds of the same pitch. The plane of this membrane is at right angles to the line connecting these sonorous centers. If both sides of the membrane are simultaneously acted on by sono- rous vibrations of the same phase and of equal intensity, the mem- brane will remain at rest. The above condition is thus attained. Attach to the center of the membrane a short delicate glass thread whose end can be observed through a microscope, or, place a reflecting metallic film on the central paii; of the membrane so that one can observe the motion of a beam of light reflected therefrom. If we place, at hazard, the membrane between the sonorous centers it is probable that it will be set in vibration. Now if it is moved from its position its vibrations will either in- crease or decrease in amplitude. Move it in the direction thai causes the amplitude of the vibrations to decrease, and until the vibrations have a minimum of swing. The membrane is now ni a plane where the phases of vibration are the same but of uneqnxl intensity. The membrane is now moved one-half wave-leuutli either from or toward one of the sonorous centers and is tlius brought into another plane of minimum vibration. Thus tn-no the membrane until it is brought into that plane where vibrations of the membrane are either entirely destroyed or l)ave their U a>t amplitude. If the membrane vibrates, then move it and the source of one of the sounds so that they both approach to oi- re- cede from the other sonorous center always by the same quantity. This is accomplished by moving a board to which is attached the membrane and one of the sources of sound. By the last adjust- ment we can soon reach a plane where the membrane remains at rest and where the intensities of the two sonorous vib rat ions are ; appears that I have thus devised a. phonometir which is described in this Journal, Feb., 1873. There 2 he use of resonators and reflection which I canr Second method. If the plane of a free membr;? Botany and Zoology. 325 lit :in;iiiuiU:uuously acted on by impulses of the same phase and (MHi:iI incioy ' Thus, by bringing the plane of a membrane ) ili.u a/.iniiitb where it remains" at rest we shall have found l>l,iiK' |ia^>ini>;- through the center of origin of the sound. I I propose tlie use of two resonators, or of two ear trumpets, '•<(1 at tlie ends of a long horizontal rod which rotates around ( rticiil avis. I may thus obtain an increase in the aural paral- I5y rotating the horizontal rod around its center I may be ' to bring the two sonorous sensations either to disappear, or to ome of equal intensity, and by these indications to arrive at "lirei'tion of a sound. Tlie last mentioned idea may develop ) something useful to the mariner who has to ascertain the II. BOTAJS'Y AND ZOOLOGY. 1. Botanu-'d CotitrifmtioHS, separatelv i-sued from the (ele\enth) volume of the Frocfedhnjs of tho A>uerh'rm A :r;:' liome but not f ,i 326 Scientific Intelligence. 2. Botanical Necrology of 1875. On the home list only one name recurs to memory, that of IxcEKASE Ali.en Lapham, LL.D, He died September 14, in the 64th year of his age. A beautiful tribute to his memory, re.id before the Old Settler's Club, of Milwaukie, by S. S. Sheniuin, Esq., has just been printed, and is noticed on a following page. An excellent portrait is prefixed. The following botanists have deceased in Europe : Friedrich Gottlieb B.\rtlixg, one of the oldest professors at Gottingen, a veteran teacher, but not a voluminous author; aged 17. Alexandre Uoreau, of Angers, France, author of the Flora du Centre de la France. John Edward Grat, March 7, at the age of 75. Principally 3 of his earliest work was in botany. A •vices appeared in this Journal, vol. x, known I as a zc .ologi of his life p. 78. Jea N Charles classical Plon ideP age. Da^ ^EL H ANBir year. A noti ''¥"} at Clapham, March 24, m his 50t this Journal, vol. ix, p. 75. We leai re to be collected. Rudolph Freidrich Hofiexiiaciier, died at Kirchheimin Wu tembu-ra:, late in the preceding year, November 14, 1874. t was in earlv life a missionary at Astrakan, and was afterward i the Caucasian provinces. ^ He Avas one of the founders of tl Unio Itinerario, and he survived his associates, Steudel and Hoc Lieut. General Jacobi, the monographer of Agave, died i Berlin, early in the year, Ernst Feedind Nolte, of Kiel, a veteran botanist, who ha retired from his professorship a year or two ago, died Februar 13, at the age of 84. Gustave Thuret, died suddenly at Antibes, France, May 1 at the age of 58. A l^rief notice of this sad loss was given in vc X, p. 67. Among other tributes to his memory is one by lii' face, the original papers have undergone " careful revision, v that have been allowed to remain, and are much less excusable i Botany and Zoology. 327 videntlv be attributed ratlier to carele'JS the permanent book form tha; of these errors must evidently 1 in the mode of statement than to lack of knowledge c of the author, "^riius on page 1S7, after properly describing the zoea of Crustacea as having only "antennai, jaws and foot-jaws" for l(K'omotive ap])endages, he states that be has examined Gclcmmi carrying eggs which '-contained zoea*, with the two of the claws in these animals doc^ not show itself until after one "^SZ formed," but in the 'next sentence he adds: "It is als( tarian, eating decaying leaves; the mouth is small an in the Annelids a dorsal and ven tral b!<,od-ve>sc-l circulatorv apparatus being close Echinoderms in general, ai the relation of Echinoderms to the Annelids. He regards h singa as the most generalized form of star-fish, and consequent of Echinoderms, and supposes it to be one of the little-modin survivors of a primitive type from which the other iornis Echinoderms have descended. It has affinities to the most ancie fossil starfishes of the Palaeozoic rocks {Frotaster, etc.) The existence of a genuine vascular system, distinct from t general ])erivi8ceral cavity and its extensions, is denied both in t^ case of this genus an ' '" ' " ' '"' Botri7iy OJ /C^ ^00%?/. 329 mi.takoi ifoi lv"i< di) m, uidit 1x1,, lu (1(M \ DllMlll. ') united , outkt ihts ] n, llu> 1)X tl.tl for oni] an anus the ■,tlK All's 1, tint ui 1 dmuMl lltcl -(H .Osulot^\'l II li? /v- l;y n)UH Mix sions'un ^?mL™,:'; k'Tii Ims rVni uhon ]>ul tl(|u/ //' ?A!\.rAf 3;§ Limvi';, r^4 to 1>1 [;; 'li'Tii ]>U , Pi- -,(./pl pul.livlu (Inl €:; _^0, |,htCS (hl.oiUi ind sun Mtll Ollx ^X^XI I's ViTotiKi x^o.ksof thi'. , 111 1 tlu mr )xti imp ifii.t of the '^talke^c.l C nistuc i o[ tlu M( \k m u logieal collections On this considerable extent on eolIe< ti( particularly from the Smithsoi 330 Scientific Intelligence. 8. 3foa or JDinornis of ^"^eio Zealand.— Remsixis of skeletons of fifteen Moas have been discovered along the beach, north of Whangarei Heads, sixty miles north of Auckland, Several human skulls and a complete human skeleton in sitting posture (the usual burying posture among the natives) were found with the Moa bones. Previously, no Moa bones had been found north of Auck- land. — Nature, Feb. 3. 9. Carnivorous Reptiles having some features of Carnivorous Mammals from the Triassic {f) of South Africa. — Professor OwE>' has described, in a paper read before the Geological Society of London on February 2d, a carnivorous reptile, named by him Cynodracon major, which has the compressed sabre-shaped canines of the Lion of the genus Machct-rodn^, and resembles Carnivores both in the canines and incisors. In the lower jaw the bases of eight incisors and of two canines (very inferior in size to the canines of the upper jaw) are visible, and the canines are separated by a diastema from the incisors. In this character, as in the number of incisors, the fossil resembles a Didelphys. "The left humerus is 10^ inches long, but is abraded at both extremities; it presents characters, in the lidges for muscular attachment, in the provision for the rotation of the forearm, and in the presence of a strong bony bridge for the protection of the main artery and nerve of the forearm, which resemble those occurring in carnivorous mammals, and especially in the Felidse, although these peculiarities are ass^ ciated with others liavinti; no mammalian resemblances." "Prof. Owen discusses these characters in detail, and indicates that there is. in the probably Triassic lacustrine deposits of South Africa, a lole group of genera (including Galesaurns, Gynochampsa, Ly- murus, Tigrisuchus, Cynosuchas, Nythosaurus, ticaloposaurus. eral name of Theriodon _ ThQ common characters of the Theriodonts are as follows : den- tition of the carnivorous type ; incisors defined by position, ana divided from the molars by a large laniariform c ' ^"'" '''"^" of both jaws, the lower canine crossing in front of the upper; no ecto-pterygoids ; humerus with an entepicoulylar foramen ; digital formula of the fore foot 2, 3, 3, 3, 3 phalanges.— Proc. Geol. Soc. of Feb. 2, in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., for March, 1876. ^ satin a, changed harncters hi/ changing the saltness of the ica.ter in which it lives. -W. J. ScHMANKEwiTSCH anuouuces, that by increasing the salt- ess of the water in w-hich the Artemia salina lives, a moditi- ation goes on from generation to generation, until the caudal >be8 finally disappear, and the form is that in the Artemia MUhl- ausenii; and by reversing the process, the caudal lobes grow ut again and become those of A. mlina. In 1871 the salt marshes bout Odessa contained great numbers of A. salina; the waters aen marked only 8° Baume. Afterward, on the repair of a dyke, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 331 the saltness increased to 14° Baume in the summer of 1872, and 25°, in August, 1874, The changes in the species were then first noted. The author afterward corroborated the fact by experiments on Artemioe reared in captivity in water of which the saltness was gradually increased. A change also takes place, correspondingly, in the form of the hranchise, and in the number of apodal segments. ~A>in. Mag. N. H., March, 187(3, from Zeitschr. wiss. ZooL, xxv, Snppl. i, 1875, p. 103, pi. 6. III. ASTEONOMY. 1. Astronomical and Meteorological Observations tjiade during the year 1873, at the U. S. K Observatort/, with Appendix ; li ear- Admiral B. F. Sands, Superintendent. Gov. Pnnting Office. This volume contains the record of a year's work at the Obser- vatory, and is evidently the record of first rate work. The Appen- dix by Professor Newcomb has been already noticed in our Feb- ruary Number. If the use for several years of one value of the latitude of the Observatory for reducing observations, made by the mural circle, and of another value for observations made by the transit circle, were the deliberate choice of the Superintendent, astronomers would probably think his decision unwise. The same also must be said of usmg a different latitude each year for the final tables of north polar distances, derived from the observations of the transit circle. It would also look better, to say the least, if the results were given 111 the same denomination, instead of north-polar distance for one instrument, and declination for the other. These things look not so much like the deliberate choice of the Superintendent, as the kind of little irregularities that must be ex- pi-cted from a system that makes little account of scientific fitness Hi appointing the Superintendent of a scientific institution. AVe hop,, tor better things from the present Superintendent, ii. a. n. 2. Auxiliary Tables for determining the angle of position of the .'iHn''s axis and the latitude and longitude of the Earth referred to the Sun's equator: by Warren De La Kue ; 20 pp. 4to, i-oiidon, 1875. Printed for private circulation. IV. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. 1. Third Export of the Settle Caves {Victoria Cave) Committee oj L.qduration ; by R. H. TiDDEMAjf. (Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1875.) -^ 1-- iidaemun was Secretary of the Committee in charge of the exploration, the other members being Sir John Lubbock, Prof. Hughes, Prof. Dawkins, and Mr. L. C. Miall. The Victoria Cave attorded the preceding year, among remains of Urms spelmus, U. jerox, IlytBna, Rhinoceros hemitOBchus., Bison, Cenms elephas, and molars of £Jlephas a liusk to be a human fibula tvhich were bowlders of all ! weight. The question whether "these glacial deposits, which rest upon the older bone-beds containing the remains of extinct mam- mals and man, are in the position which they occupied at the close of the Glacial conditions, or have subsequently fallen into their present site," is answered by stating that the new facts "go to lative." In one chamber (numbered D) the uns of the Badger, Horse, Pig, Bei,,- ; peculiar in the abundance of Rein- deer x^-m2:m^ and tlie absence of the Elephant, Rhinoceros, IIli)i)0- potamus, Hyaena, as if it were of the Reindeer epoch, or later ; t he- lower afforded bones of Hymia, Broion Bear{P), Elephas aut;- quus, Bhinoceros heinitcechus. Hippopotamus, Bos primigenius ; while, in both, there occur remains of Man, Fox, Grisly Bear and Bed Beer, A piece of a human rib was found during the year in the lower bed, near where the fibula was taken out. 2. Air and its Relations to Life; by Walter Noel Hahti.et, F.C.S., Kings College, London. "263 pp. 12mo. New York, 1875. (D. Appleton & Co.)— This very readable little volume contains the substance of a course of six summer lectures delivered in 1874 at the Royal Institute of Great Britain. The author exhibits the rare faculty of presenting the results of exact scienoe in a lorm perfectly intelligible and attractive to intelligent people not famil- iar with the technical language of science. The researches of the most trustworthy investigators are cited with good judgment from the days of Black and Lavoisier to those of Retenkofer, Angus Smith and Pasteur. Indeed it is not easy to say where else in English we can find so full a statement of the researches of Pasteur as in chapter four of Mr, Hartley's essay. 3. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, Prol. F. V. Hayde^ in cAfrr^e.— Bulletin No. 1, Vol. II, of this Survey has appeared It contains seven articles. Three, by, severally, Messrs. Holmes, Jackson and Bessels, treat of the Ancient Ruins of Southwestern Colorado, Utah and Arizona, and are illustrated with twenty-nine octavo plates, of cliff dwellings and other ruins, pottery, utensils, crania, etc. Of the remaining four, three are short articles on the Lite Indians, by E, A. Barber; and a fourth consists of descriptions of thirty-one new species of fossil Coleop- tera from the Tertiary formations of the West, by S. IL Scudder. The volume is full of interesting facts in American Archteology, and the maps and plates illustrate well the subjects discussed. 3. Compressed Beat.^Feat pressed into blocks and made so compact that a cubic foot weighs 85 to 100 pounds, is manufac- tured by Mr. A. E. Barthel, of Detroit, Michigan, and sells for one and a half dollars per ton. 4. Rej)ort of the Snperintendent of the TJ. S. Coast ^ iiur '■<>/, showing the progress of the Survey during 1872. This report contains 18 appendixes, among which we note the report of Assis- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 333 tant Cutts and Prof. Young of Astronomical and Meteorological observations made at Sherman, Wyoming Ter., pp. 75-172; and a preliminary report on transatlantic longitude, by Prof. Hilgard, pp. 227-234. Mineral Resources West of the Rocky Mountains. 7th Annual Report, by R. '. Raymond. 540 pp. 8vo. Washington, 1875. Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. Report of Progress in the Clear- Id and Jefferson District of the Bituminous Coal-fields of Western Pennsylvania, ' PrankUn Piatt. 296 pp. 8vo, with 139 wood-cuts and 10 maps and sections, arrisburg, Pa., 1874. L Cope, and No. 2 by J. : Colorado, by John J. Stevenson. 372 pp. > pp. 8vo, with M, LL.D. : a Biographical Sketch, by S. S. Sherman. 80 pp. 8vo, 1876.— This memoir is a very just tribute ory of Dr. Lapham, who died at Milwaukee, ber, as already stated in this Journal. Dr. Lapha very varied knowledge and scientific labors. Early in life, while stated in this Journal. Dr. Lapham was a man of c labors. Early in life, while began a collection of plants, his death numbered 8,000 species, and he also published . . the geology of portions of Ohio. Moving to Milwaukee in 1836, he commenced observations on the topography, soil, mineral and other industrial resources, of Wisconsin, and on the commerce and navigation of the lakes, and kept tables of the daily tempera- ture, rain-fall, and other meteorological phenomena; and in 1844 he published for Wisconsin a volume of 250 pages, on these topics. He afterward contributed Agricultural, Botanical and Geological papers to the Transactions of the Wisconsin State Agricultural S^iety, among them a valuable treatise of nearly 100 pages on The Grains of Wisconsin and adjacent States," a paper which he afterward extended to a manuscript volume of 574 pages on the Gramineae of the United States, but which remains unpublished. The fluctuations in the level of Lake Michigan early engaged his attention, and in 1849 he announced his discovery of "a blight wiar tide in Lake Michigan." The study of Indian mounds of Wisconsin occupied much of his time, and as early as 1836 he called attention to a turtle-shaped mound at Waukesha. He was the first to notice that many of these aboriginal earthworks are gigantic basso-relievos of men, beasts, birds and reptiles." His ^ell known and highh^ valued "Antiquities of Wisconsin," printed "^" suown and highh^ valued " Antiqi py the Smithsonian Institution, is a h olume, contain- arge quarto v 55 plates and numerous wood-engravings, all from his i Another subject which occupied him was Meteorites; ; ar crystalline markings in a Wisconsin meteorite, first n } designated by Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, i meteorite in this Journal (II, xlvii, 271), Laphamite markings. The establishment of the Signal Service Bureau at Washington in 1869 was due largely to personal effort and influence on the part of Mr. Lapham. Dr. Lapham was placed, in 1873, at the head of the Geological Survey of the State of Wisconsin, a position for which he was well fitted : and the Survey went forward with energy and important results through that year and 1874. To the misfortune of science and the State, he was deposed at the close of 1874, and, through political management, a man ignorant of geology was substituted. It was a serious disappointment to Dr. Lapham, and not less so to all friends of science in the land. " His abrupt dismissal was all the more cruel because this was the only opportunity he ever had of perfecting and giving to the public in a permanent form the results of a life-work in the geology, natural history and industrial resources of the State." Dr. Lapham was active also in all educational movements ; a founder of the Milwaukee Female College, a liberal contributor to the Cabinet of the Wisconsin State University, and one of the founders of the Wisconsin Historical Society, and of the Wiscon- sin Academy of Sciences. Rev. Augustus Wmo, of Rochester, Vermont, died in Whiting, in that State, on the 19th of January, aged sixty-seven years. Mr. Wing was a graduate of Amherst College, of the class of 1B35. Although not a geologist by profession, a large part of his time for many years had been spent in the study of the rocks of Vermont, and especially of the crystalline limestone, quartzyte and slates of the central portion of the State. By the discovery of Lower Silu- rian fossils in the crystalline limestone at several different localities he threw much light on the geology of metamorphic New England. In August of the past year the writer had the pleasure of accom- panying Mr. Wing on a visit to some of his localities that were of special interest for their fossils or for their illustration of the strati- fication of the rocks, and this was his last scientific excursion, ex- as ne poiniea tnem out; nis earnestness m maKing ituuwix u^.^ -— elusions and in supporting them against all expressed doubts; bis eager, rapid gait as we walked over the rocks and hills, made huQ an especially agreeable companion, and suggested no thought of the end that was so soon to come. Before parting, he promised to sena for this Journal an account of his discoveries, as in fact he had done before. But he disliked writing, and it was not sent. "6 hope that his notes may yet afford material for such a paper. APPENDIX. Art. XLI. — Principal Characters of the BRONTOTHERIDiE ; by O. C. Marsh. With four plates. The ! mammals LHE remams oi a weli-marked group or gigan abundant in the lowest deposits of the Mio eastern slope of the Kooky Mountains. These animals, which have been named by the writer, Brontotheridce, equaled the Eocene Dinocerata in size, and resembled them in some im- portant features. They do not, however, belong to the same order, but constitute a distinct family of Perissodactyles. Four genera of this family are now known, as shown below, but Brontotherium is the only one represented by sufficient remains to clearly indicate its structure and affinities ; and hence this genus will be first described, and mainly used to illustrate the group. Brontotherium Marsh, 1873.* The skull in Brontotherium is long and depressed, and re- sembles that of Rhinoceros. The occipital region is extended vertically, and deeply concave posteriorly. The vertex is con- cave longitudinally, and convex transversely. The general form of the skull is shown in the cut given below, figure 1. ^., There is a pair of large horn-cores on the i skull, m front of the orbits. They stand 2.s^!ii^'^,^ VOL y, p. 486. A 336 0. a Marsh— Principal Cho ; of the like the middle pair ia Dinoceras, the nasals forming only the inner margin of the base. These protuberances are placed transversely, as in modern Artiodactyles, and extend upward and outward. They vary much with age, and probably dif- fered with the sex. There are large air cavities in the base of these horn- cores. The nasal bones are greatly developed, and firmly co-ossified. Their anterior extremities are produced, and overhang the large narial orifice. The premaxillaries are dim- inutive, and do not usually extend forward so far as the end of the nasals. The infra-orbital foramen is very large. The lachry- mal forms the anterior border of the orbit. The latter is small, and continuous with the elongated temporal fossa. There is no postorbital process on the frontal. The zygomatic arches are massive, and much expanded. The malar extends forward be- yond the lower margin of the orbit. The zygomatic process of the squamosal is elevated, and more or less incurved above. There is a large postglenoid process, which forms the anterior border of the external auditory meatus. The latter is bounded behind and below by the post-tympanic process of the squamosal. There is a large par-occipital process. The occipital condyles are large, and well separated. Their position indicates that the head was declined when in its natural position. There is a large condylar foramen, and a distinct alisphenoid canal. The palate is deeply excavated, especially in front. The posterior nares extend forward between the last upper molars. The brain cavity in Brontotherium is small, and its form is shown in Plate XI, the figures of which are drawn from a nat- )-tenth natural size, urai cast of the brain-case of B. ingens Marsh. The size of the entire brain compared with that of the cranium is shown m the accompanying cut, figure 2. 0. a Marsh— Principal Characters of the Brontoth&ridoe. 337 The cerebral hemispheres did not extend at all over the cerebellum, and little if any over the olfactory lobes. The lat- ter were of moderate size, and separated by a wide osseous septum. The hemispheres were comparatively large, and much convoluted. The Sylvian fissure is well-marked in the cast, and some of the other principal divisions are indicated. The cerebellum was small. There was a rudimentary tentorial ridge. The pituitary fossa is distinctly marked. The fora- mina for the optic nerves are quite small. The mandible in Brontotherium has a wide condyle, and a slender coronoid process. The angle is rounded, and slightly produced downward. The symphysis is depressed, elongated, ery shallow in front, and completely ossified. (Plat '"" ^ The dental formula o^ Brontotherium is as follows:- lars, t Incisors,—; canines,—; premolars,— ; molars,— X 2=38. The upper incisors are quite small. (Plate X.) The canine is short and stout, and placed close to the first premolar. The upper premolars have all essentially the same structure, viz : two external connate cusps, with their outer faces nearly plane, and two inner cones closely united. The anterior cone is connected with the opposite outer cusp by a transverse ridge, which has ^°^ind it an elongated depression, more or less divided by pro- ions from the outer posterior cusp. In the upper true mo- , the external cusps have their outer surfaces deeply concave, while the inner cones are low and separate. The lower incisors were small, and evidently of little use. The two next the sym- physis were separated from each other. The lower incisors are not unfrequently wanting, and in old animals the alveoli may, perhaps, disappear. Careful examination, however, will usually show indications of them. The lower canine is of moderate size, and separated from the premolars by a short diastema. The lower molars are of the Palceotherium type, and agree essentially with those of Menodm. The neck in Brontotherium was stout, and of moderate length. The cervical and most of the dorsal vertebrae are distinctly opis- thocoelous. The atlas is large, and much expanded transversely. The axis is massive, and has its anterior articular faces much broader than in the Dinocerata. The odontoid process was stout and conical. The posterior articular face is concave, and oblique. The transverse processes apparently bad no foramen for the vertebral artery. The epiphyses of the vertebrae are loosely united in most specimens, as in the Proboscidians. The lum- oars are slender, and smaller than the dorsals. There are four ▼ertebrae in the sacrum. The caudal vertebrae indicate a long and slender tail. 338 0. a Marsh— Principal Characters of the Brontotherida. The limbs of the Broniotheridm were intermediate in proportion between those of the Elephant and the Ehinoceros. The scapula is large, with a prominent spine and small coracoid process. The humerus is stout, and its great tuberosity extends above the head. The radial crest is prominent, and the entire distal end is occupied by the articulation. The olecranon cav- ity is shallow, and the condylar ridge similar to that of the Ele- phant, but not continued so far up the shaft. The radius and ulna are separate. The ulna has its olecranon portion much compressed. Its distal end is much smaller than in Rhinoceros^ and has no articular face for the lunar. The radius is stout, and its distal end expanded. The carpal bones fonn interlock- ing series. They are shorter than in E/mwceros, and support four well developed toes of nearly equal size. (Plate XIII, figure 2.) The metacarpal bones are shorter than those of Ehi- noceros, the first phalanges longer, and the second series shorter. All the toes had "navicular" sesamoid bones, similar to that on the coronary bone of the horse. The ungual phalanges are short and tubercular, as in the Dinoceraia and Prohoscidea. The pelvis is much expanded transversely. The femur has a small third trochanter, and its head a deep pit for the round liga- ment. At the distal end, the anterior articular surface is narrow, and the two edges are of nearly equal prominence, as in the Tapir. The patella is elongate, and has a strong vertical keel on its articular face. The tibia is stout, and has a distinct spina The fibula is separate and entire, but quite slender. The cal- caneum is much elongated. The astragalus is shorter than in the Rhinoceros, and the superior groove more oblique. The cuboid face is larger than in Rhinoceros. The navicular has its distal facets subequal. There were three toes of nearly equal size in the pes, the first and fifth being entirely wanting. (Plate XII, figure 1.) None of the bones of the skeleton are hollow. There appear to be four well marked genera in the Bronio- theridae^ now known, which may be distinguished as follows : 1. Menodus Pomel.* {Titanotherium Leidy, 1852.) Dentition =Incisors~ ; canines—; premolars — ; molars—. Diastema behind upper canines. Basal ridge on inner side of upper premolars not continuous. Nasals short. A postorbital process. Third trochanter rudimentarv or wanting. Type M. Proutii. 2. Megacerops Leidy. {Megaceratops Cope), {Symhorodon Cope in part.) ^ Dentition =r Incisors — ; canines — ; premolars-^ ; molars—. * Bib. Univ. de Geneve, x, p. 75, Jan., 1849. 0. C. Marsh — Principal Characters of ike Brontotheridce. 339 Diastema behind upper canines. Inner basal ridge on upper premolars not continuous. Nasals more elongated. A postor- bital process. Third trochanter rudimentary or wanting. Type Megacerops Coloradensis Leidy, 3, Brontotherium Marsh, {Symborodon Cope, in part) {Mio- hasileus Cope.) Dentition =InciBors— ; canines— ; premolars— ; molars—. No superior diastema. Strong continuous basal ridge on inner side of upper premolars. No postorbital process. Third tro- chanter distinct. Type B. gigas Marsh. 4. Diconodon Marsh {Anisacodon). Dentition r=:Incisors— ; canines— ; premolars— ; molars—. No superior diastema. Strong inner basal ridge on upper pre- molars. Last upper molar with two inner cones. No postor- ital process. Type D. montamis Marsh. In the dentition and skeleton, the BrmitoHieridue more nearly resemble the Eocene Diplacodon, than any other American genus, and they may yet prove to be nearly related. The ani- mals of that genus were of much smaller size, and entirely without horns. The relations of the Brontotheridce. to the genus Chalicoiherium Kaup, cannot at present be determined. In comparing the Brontotherida with the equally gigantic Dmocerata of the Eocene, several striking points of resemblance will be at once noticed ; especially the presence of horn-cores in transverse pairs : the general structure of the limbs ; and the short and thick toes. The differences, however, between these two groups are still more marked. In the Brmitotheridm there IS but a single pair of hom-cores, and no crest around the ver- tex. The structure and number of the teeth are quite different, while the small canines and huge molars contrast strongly with the elongated canine tusks and diminutive molars of the Dinocerata. The latter, moreover, have two very large depen- dent processes on each ramus of the mandible ; the cervical vertebrae flat; the femur without a third trochanter; and at least an additional toe in each foot. Amojig the features which this group shares with the Prohos- cidea may be mentioned : the superior extension of the condylar "dge of the humerus ; the short thick toes ; and the late union 01 the epiphyses with the centra of the vertebrae. The last character appears to belong especially to mammals of very large ^^^^' and probably indicates late maturity, and great longevity, ^\^ Brontotheridce nearly equaled the Elephant in size, but tS^ m""^^ ^^^*^ shorter, the nose was probably flexible, as in the Tapir, but there was evidently no true proboscis. 340 0. C. Marsh— Principal Characters of the BronMheridoE. All the known remains of the BrontotheridcR are from east of the Eocky Mountains, in the Miocene beds of Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Colorado. Yale College, New Haven, March 16, 1876. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES.] Akt. XLll— On supposed changes in the Nebula M. 17 = b. 2008 = a C. 4403. (R. A. IS^ 12"' 33«.l ; N. P. D. 106" 13' 36" ; 1860-0) ; by Edward S. Holden.* I. Historical Notes — Observations: — This nebula was discov- ered bv Messier and is number 17 of his list {Connaissance des Terns 1784). It has been carefully studied since 1800, by Sir John Herschel (1833-37), Lamont (1837), Mason (1839), Lassell (1862), Huggins (1865), Trouvelot (1875), and Trouvelot and myself (1875). These observations, so far as they are pub- lished, are to be found in the following works :— Heeschel: Observations of Nebute, etc, made at Slough; PMl. Trans., 1833, p. 498 and Plate XII, fig. 35. Heeschel : Results of Astronomical Observations at tJie Gape of Good Hope, p. 8 and Plate IL fig. 1. Lamont : [/eber die ^ebeljieckm, 1831, fig. X. Lamont: Annalen der K. Sternwarte hei MUnchm, band xvii, p. 332 and fig. 21, Plate VIII. Mason: Transactions American Phil. Soc, vol. vii, 1840, p. 165, Plate YI. Lassell: Mmi. E. A. S.. vol. xixvi; Plates VII, VIII. figs. 33, 33 A. HiTGGiNS: Pkilosopical Transactions 1866, p. 386. The later observations are unpublished. I extract from these various authorities such portions as will be of use for subsequent reference. From Herschel's paper {Phil. Trans., 1833):— " The figure of this nebula is nearly that of a Greek capital ojnega, n, somewhat distorted, and very unequally bright. Messier perceived only the bright [eastern] branch of the nebula now in question, without any of the attached oon\;olutions which were first noticed by my father. The chief peculiarities which I * This article has in Messrs. Appleton t- JoDR. 8ci.— Third Sbries, Vol. E. S. EoUm—On supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. 'e strongly suggesting the laea ot an absorption ol tde nebulous matter; and, 2. The much feebler and smaller knot at the [northwestern] end of the same branch, where the nebula makes a sudden bend at an acute angle. With a view to a more exact representation of this curious nebula, I have at different times, taken micrometrical measures of the relative places of the stars in and near it, by which, when laid down as in a chart, its limits may be traced and identified, as I hope soon to have better opportunity to do than its low situation in this latitude will permit." From Ast. Obs. at the Cape oj Good Nope .—Aher explaining that his first figum is far from accurate Herschel says :— "In particular the large horseshoe shaped arc ... is tlRif represented as too much elongated in a vertical direction and :i> bearing altogether too large a proportion to [the eastern] streak and to the total magnitude of the object. The nebulous diffu^i"|'- too, at the [western] end of that arc, forming the [westeni] anp^' and base-line of the capital Greek omega (iJ), to which the general figure of the nebula has been likened, is now so little conspicuous as to induce a suspicion that some real change may have taken place in the relative brightness of this portion compared with the rest of the nebula ; seeing that a figure of it made on June 25, 1837, expresses no such diffusion, but represents the arc as break- ing off before it even attains fully to the group of small stars at E. S. Holden—On supposed changes in Nebida M, 17. the [western] angle of the Omega. . . . Under these c the arguments for a real change in the nebula might seem to ha considerable weight. Nevertheless, they are weakened destroyed by a contrary testimony entitled to much relian mature death is the more to be regretted, as he was, so far as only other recent observer who has given himself pressly states that hoili the nebulous knots coadjutor Mr. Smith on August 1, 1839, i. e., two at to the date of my last drawing. Neither Mr. , however, nor any other observer, appears to have had the years subsequent to the date of my last drawing. Neith Mason, however, nor any other observer, appei 3 of the existence of the fainter horseshoe arc attached to the [eastern] extremity of Messier's streak, given a figure of this nebula, accompanied by a description. In this figure [our Fig. 3], the nebulous diffusion at the [western] angle and along the [western] base line of the Omega is repre- sented as very conspicuous ; indeed, much more so than 1 can per- suade myself it was his intention it should appear." 844 E. S. Holden—On supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. Herschel's Star-positions obtained i 3 given in Table From Lament's observations, band xvii, Annalen der K. Stern- warte bei Munchen, p. 332 et seq.^ I extract the following : — with regard to Sir John Herschel's drawing in the Cape of Good Hope Observations he says " .... bei mehreren Sternen scheint .... die Abweichung so gross, dass erst durch kiinf- tige Beobachtung entschieden werden muss, ob Aenderungen vorkommen, oder ob die Unterschiede in den Messangen ihren Grrund haben," Lamont's measures are mostly of position angle, and all of these which are directly comparable with Lassell's mea- sures I have placed in Table III. We find two important notes on the physical aspects of the nebula as follows:— "Im Nebel kommt ein Knoten vor, den Sir J. Herschel als auflosbar betrachtet, wahrend ich von Aufldsbarkeit keine Andeutung bemerken konnte. Die Lange des Nebels-Kno- tens schatzte ich =■ Histanz (2) — (28) [Lassell's nomencla- ture] und die Breite=i Bistanz (2)— (7). An 2 August [1837] fiel mir eine Stelle zwischen (2) und (40) auf, wo ich einen E. S. HoMen—On supposed changes m Nebula M. 17. 345 verschwindend kleiiien Stern oder ein Hauflein solcher Sterne wahrzunehmen glaubte." In regard to the credence due to Lament's sketch the follow- ing sentence is important (op. aV. p. 805) : "Was die . . . beige- fugten Zeichnungen betrifft, so sind sie nur als Skizzen zu betracbten, welche bios den Zweck haben, die Messungs- resultate verstandlich zu machen." From Mason "s paper above cited : — ''Things certain:—!. The 'resolvable knot' mentioned bj Herschel is isolated or nearly so, from the rest of the nebula. 2. The smaller knot is apparently not affected with this peculiarity. 3. Of the faint bend or loop [horseshoe] the following half is brighter than the preceding. ■4. The bright branch fades away gradually to the [east] ; it is convex [towards the south.] 5. The external angle of the n( star [8] (of Lassell's nomenclaturi 346 E. 8. Holden — On supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. 8) towards the n. p. much farther than in Herschel's drawing." (our fig. 1.) '■'■Nearly certain: — 1. The bright branch is more definitely bounded on its southern side than upon the northern. [??] 2. The ' resolvable knot' of Herschel has either a second nucleus or involves a faint star in its [south] margin." ^'' Strongly suspected : — 5. Just [south] of star [2] is a portion a little brighter than the rest of the bend." Mason's star positions are given in Table I. Lassell gives no description of the nebula, and we extract onlj his measures of the co-ordinates of eleven of the brightest stars, which are contained in Table IV, and which we shall use as standard positions to which all others are to be referred. We give Lassell's figure above, remarking that it was ( structed, as indeed all the preceding ones have been, by measuring the relative position of the brighter stars, then ins ing by careful eye-estimates the fainter ones, and finally drawing among these stars, guided by their configurations, 'Ictails of the nebula itself. E. S. Holdfn — On supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. 347 In Huggins' paper already cited (p. 385) we find the follow ing:— " Lord Oxmantown informs rae that in the observations of this nebula at Birr Castle, there is no mention of resolvabilitv ; and that ; the central part to the right [east ?] of star a [No. 2 ?] consists of bunches or patches of bright nebulosity with fainter nebulosity intervening.' The spectrum of this nebula indicates that it possesses a gaseous constitution. One bright line only was seen, occupying in the spectrum apparently the same position as the brightest of the lines of nitrogen. When the slit was made as narrow as the intensity of the light would permit, this bright line was not so well defined as the corresponding line in some of the other nebulae under similar conditions of the slit, but remained nebulous at the edges. When the brightest portion of the nebula containing the nucleus or ' bright knot' was brought upon the slit, in addition to the bright line a faint narrow continuous spectrun The bright k _ ^ • condensed than it is' represeot* Herschel." A very rapid method of drawing nebulae, is the following: it yields to the first in the accuracy of the positions of the stars, but it is probably even superior to it in facilities for the correct representation of the nebula and stars considered as one mass. A piece of glass ruled carefully into squares (see figs. 6 and 7) and this is placed in the focus of the eyepiece so as to be plainly visible; the telescope is then directed upon the nebula, and a clock-work motion is applied to the telescope so that it follows the nebula accurately. Some one of the brighter stars is chosen, and it is kept by means of the clock-work accurately in the corner of one of the squares. A piece of paper ruled into squares similar to those of the glass reticle is provided, and ) observer dots down the various stars in and about the nebula. This may take two, three or four nights, according t< circumstances, but in all cases it requires much less time thai micrometric measurements of the brighter stars and the troublesome allineations required to fix the positions of the smaller stars and it has the great advantage that the work can be done in a perfectly dark field of view, whereas the micro- metric measures demand the use of illuminated wires at least. After the stars are inserted, the principal lines of the nebula are put in, not only by the star groups, but also by the squares themselves. For my own use I have had constructed two reti- cles : one ruled in squares like those seen in figs 6 and 7, and another in which the heavy-lined large squares (each containing nine small squares, see fig. 6) are still present, but are subdi- 348 E. S. Holden — Chi supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. vided into small squar( After making all the use possible of the iirst reticle, the second ' 'n, and an entin ' diagonals. " 3 second btained, tirely new set of reference-line iaking*an angle of 45° with the old set This, of course, co be equally obtained by revolving the first reticle through angle of 45°, but it is not quite so convenient. After the stars and tlie principal lines of the nebula are inserted a new and higher power eye-piece is used, and the ans of this. Fig. 6 is an example drawing is concluded by mean S. Holden — On supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. 34-9 bright by the engraver ii 350 E. S. Holdcn — On siipposed changes in Nebula M. 17. Washington for the purpose of making drawings of nebulae, etc., by means of the twentj-six-inch Clark refractor. By the courtesy, of Admiral Davis I am able to give a drawing of the Horseshoe Nebula as delineated by M. Trouvelot from obser- vations made jointly by him and myself. Pretty much the' same method was adopted in this drawing as in tig. 6, but the vastly more complex structure of the nebula itself is what might have been expected from an in- crease of eighteen times in the light, over M. Trouvelot's six- inch telescope. It may be said of the drawing from which fig. 7 was copied, that nothing is there laid down about which the slightest doubt is entertained; and although, in some respects, it was made in greater haste than is desirable, yet it is sufficiently accurate to found an argument on, for or against variation in tbe shape of any of the brighter portions of the nebula. The fainter portions of' fig. 7 are too well defined and too bold, but it is. in general, a good representation. Jfir'" M. Trou E. S, Holden — On supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. 351 the nebuloi as they would appear in a refractor. It is only in this way that several drawings, made both by reflectors and refractors can be satisfactorily and minutely compared. The cuts of the present paper were reproduced from such photo- graphic prints, and they are on a scale of one inch = 266""2 ; in the present paper, however, all conclusions are drawn from an examination of the original engravings, although references are made to the cuts for convenience. My own notes on the physical aspect of this nebula are as follows:— ' The brighter portions of this nebula give evidence of resolv- ular all the brighter parts of the " horseshoe," branch extending from star 8 to star 71, seem nder intense looking, to be just ready to break into small stars. ' f small points of light were put down both by myself and by rouvelot, but it was soon found that such a task was endless and of far less importance than the correct delineation of the nebulosity. For nearly all the details of the drawing M. Trouve- lot is responsible, as time did not allow of that careful and inde- pendent comparison which it is desirable should always be made ; but it may be said briefly, that there are no conjectures laid down in the original Everything is as it was seen. I confined my attention principally to the space limited by stars, 1, 6, 9, 61, 63, 70, 20, 8, 3, 10, on account of the evidence from older drawings that this portion has moved relatively to the stars ; and I can vouch for its general accuracy. This portion is sufficiently accurate to found an argument for or against variability upon. For example. I am sure that the brightest mass of nebulosity follmcs star No. 1, as M. Trouvelot has drawn it, and I am sure that the general direction of the dark channels between stars 7 and 53 is correct in the drawing." — [Sept. 21 to Oct. 2, 1875.] Trouvelot's star co-ordinates were obtained graphically from the original sketch and are given in Table IV. II. Comparison of Star-positims. The only relative star-places completely determined which are of the highest accuracy are those of Lassell. "Eleven of the principal stars were measured and the remainder laid down some approximation to their pro- tudes is preserved in the drawing. The num- bers are generally, but not uniformly, in the descending order of magnitude." Thie star-positions of Lamont are of high accuracy, bat unfortunately only angles of position were measured in most cases. Mason's work was done while he was an undergrad- uate at Yale College, with a telescope of his own construction mounted as an alt-azimuth, and in the intervals of his collegiate 362 E. S. Holden — Oii supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. duties, and although every endeavor was made to obtain high accuracy, and above all to determine the limits of error, yet his ttparatively inadequate. He esti- [ by : The method chosen by M. Trouvelot and noticed. It may be of interest to remark that the : of Trouvelot referred to Lassell is about 7"'7 in R. A. and 5'''3 in N, P. D. The larger residual in R A, is due to imperfect running of the driving clock of the Equatorial. When this clock is in its usual good condition I believe that this error will not exceed 6", a quantity which is not appreciable in any draw- ing of a considerable nebula which can be put upon a quarto page. Table I.— Mason's Sta Lassell's Mason's Mason's Mason's Mason's Remarks. number. number. magnitude. R. A. 1830-0 6 1830-0. ~ir 1 U15 32-9 -I0^13'4r When the identifica- tion of one of Mason's stars with one of Las- 10 14 sell's is at all doubtful a 34U 11 45 question-mark (?) is add- 15 \ 12 11 50 ed in the first column. 11 10 identified but only so many are included as 35 i' It 13 58-9 th'" St? S th^nebr- 28 15 13 30 losity. The same re- 14-1^5 10 ii^ 15 21 10 57 20 2T 12 18 11 2J-3 -16 W '1 E. &. Holden—On supposed changes in Nehida M. 17. Table II.— Hebschel's SxAB-POsmoNa AR.A.froin AN.P.D.from | rc^ Hmarc. |£ a the column " Class" 1 lineations from known stars; srere derived from the down by the eye on the chart. I g! hI'p.^s. ^^' Table III.— C MPXBISOK %i -1^ Lasseli's Lamont'a 1J 11 11 Tromf' «•■ Remarks. 15 239r ??;r ""oT No. 1. Laasell's distance 133-1'; La- 342-4 341-3 .\:^-^^\^ri^'r-rzs.t:i 10 altogether, Lamont's angle becomes ii « 2991 299-6 -0-5 No. h': Masor 1839. Lasse J 1862. ... Trouvel .tl8»5. ^Remarks 1 + 66-0- -166-8 + 200-4 + 181-2 -124-2" + 280-2 -i?io -^3?'l -'45-0 + 365-9 + 68-3' 1^18-6 Il3?-8 - 12-8 -1161' 1' 7352-6 + 64-5' + 166-6 til ty- 354 E. S. Holdm— On supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. Table V. — Comparison of Lassbll, Mason, Hersohel and Tboutelot. No. Lassell- Herschel, ^Si: --',-, Remarks. Ac. Ai Aa. 1 AS. 11 6-2 23-0 8-Of I ^0-8 ^6-2 1 * Some doubt as to identity. mined are marked f, the rest are esti- " B^tiU be noted that Mason's resi- duals are quite within his limits of It may be seen from table J II that the relative positions of the principal star? of this group are the same during the period of observation. Precession will cause clianges of relative posi- tion far less than the errors of observation. III. Comparison of Htar-magnitudes. It will be remembered that Lassell's numbers represent generally the order of brightness of the stars. Mason's magni- tudes were reduced by himself so as to correspond to those of Herschel, and this was done in Ms own thorough way, by comparing his estimates of the brightness of stars in Nelmla Cygni, with those previously given by Herschel. Lamont and Trouvelot give no magnitudes. Table VI contains most of the information available on this Tablk VI.— Comparison op Star-magnitudes. Lassell's number, li2| . Ha ,ia|,o n|>. 13i,.:2s!H .. Herschel'8 magnitude, nl„-u!,3lK 4. 12!,.^;12: .3 _ — »' jnu... r;i....|u..|u 15112 13J15 16,14^ 14 it) From thif i that the order of magnitude is as follows: 2, 3, 5, 6, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 13, 35, 8, II, 12, 73, 10, 15, 28; Mason, 1, 2, 5, 6, 12, 3, 7, 13, 10, 35, 8, 73, II, 15, 28. A suspicion of variabilitv exists as to stars 12, 13, 10, 35, 8, 73, 11, 15,* 28, but 35, 8, 15and 73 are the only cases in which a probahHity of variability exists and even in these cases it is slight. If my identification of Lassell's 73 on the other draw- ings is correct, there is a mistake in his magnitude. A toler- ably bright star is very near its place. * See p. 359. E. S. Holden—On supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. 355 It will be remembered that the seven drawings of this nebula which we possess were made in the years 1833, 1837, 1839, 1862 and 1875 quite independently, by different observers and different telescopes It is evident that in cases where these dif- ferent drawings agree, there can be no doubt as to the existence of the feature delineated. The non-existence of any prominent feature not given is probable, although not certain. To ex- amine the question proposed at the head of this section, it will be advantageous to divide the drawings into three groups, the first consisting of all figures made before 1840 (Herschel's, Lamont's, Mason's), the second, of Lassell's fine delineation, which is entitled to very great weight, and the third, of the two drawings made by M. Trouvelot, one at Cambridge and the other at Washington. It is well to recall the fact that Hers- chel's two figures were made with his 20-foot reflector of 18^ inches aperture; Lamont's with the Munich refractor of 11 inches ; Mason's with a 14-foot reflector of 12 inches ; Lassell's with his 4-foot reflector; M. Trouvelot's first drawing with a 6^ inch Merz refractor, and the Naval Observatory drawing with the very perfect Clark refractor of 26 inches. To prove the existence of a change it is necessary and suffi- cient to show that a prominent feature which the first group of drawings give-!, is in a different position relative to the stars in Lassell's drawing and that the motion thus shown is confirmed and continued by the two figures of 1875, much greater weight being given to the work of the larger instrument in 1875. It must be remembered that with two instruments of equal light, hardly more discrepancy in the positions of the ^/grA/er portions of the nebula is to be expected than in the star-positions, for these positions are determined by the stars themselves and can be assigned with almost no error, in a nebula which contains so many stars as the one under consideration. The fainter por- tions may vary greatly from the smaller to the larger instru- ments. No relative numerical weight can be assigned to the various drawings, even if it were desirable to do this, but it may be remarked that Mason's, Herschel's (1837), Lassell's and that of the Naval Observatory are of the greatest authority. Herschel's first drawing, he himself does not consider compar- able in accuracy to his second : Lamont's is of great weight as to the relative star- positions, but was not intended as anything more than a "sketch," and Trouvelot's first figure while un- doubtedly of high accuracy as far as his instrumental means were satisfactory, is yet not strictly comparable with the work of Herschel's and Lassell's reflectors, or to his own work with the Naval Observatory refractor. 356 E. S. Holden—On supposed changes in Nehula M'. 17. . In Table YII, I have thrown into a convenient form the evidence for or against a motion of the " horseshoe " with reference to its contained stars. It will be remembered that so far as our evidence goes (see Tables III and V) the rela- tive position of the stars themselves has not changed; as the agreement of the careful measures of Lament and Lassell (whose observations are separated by 25 years) is quite as good as can be expected. In Table V none of the residuals are greater than the limits of error supposed by the various ob- servers to exist in their own work ; and most of them are less. It is moreover, plain that if the star-positions had changed while the nebula also moved, even this fact would not effect the question as to whether the line joining two stars, say 10 and 11, was inside or outside of the nebulosity. It is therefore in this way that I have presented the evidence concerning the motion of the " horseshoe " relative to the principal stars. That is, I take a certain line, as that one joining stars No. 10 and 11 and terminated by them, and arranging the drawings chronologically, I enquire how this line is situated with regard to the nebula '^in the various delineations Is it all inside, or partly outside ? If partly outside, what fraction of its length is outside ? The single exception to this method is that of star 11, whose remarkable situation in the various drawings of the nebula first led me to suspect a change. The number of independent proofs of the change, is not quite so great as the number of columns in Table VII, since most of the evidence rests upon the positions of stars i, 34, 35, 2, 10, It will be seen that not only is the change progressive from group I to group II and from this to group III but that in general it is even progressive from drawings 1 to 7. The exception to this general progression is fig. 6, made by M. Trouvelot with his 6| telescope shortly before the drawing No. 7. It will be observed that in many particulars his de- scription corresponds to that given by the figures 1 to 4 ; which might indicate that the differences observed are only such as might be expected from the employment of different telescopes by different observers. This explanation I do not believe to be the correct one, for the reason that, first, no explanation is thus attained of the large and consistent differences between mum brightness in the early figures, and in that made by M. Trouvelot at Cambridge, shows that so far as the evidence goes, the line of maximum brightness in the western half of the horse- shoe, is now further to the east than it was in 1834-9. It is evident that if the line of maximum brightness was plainly laid I n I iili ! \M flijij i ii iw j i! I ! fill I I I HHi 1 il liia^i ii! ! i ! iiHiliftj i i i . ^ s IS liii ! 1 P 2JilL.LXX i III 358 E. S. Holden — On supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. down by each observer no difficulty would be found in mak- ing an exact comparison, and it will be found from an exam- ination of the original engravings that the tracing of such a line on them is a matter of some difficulty. Still, it is believed that sufficient definiteness can be attained to show that on the whole Trouvelot's Cambridge drawing is consistent with the con- clusion above given. In particular, his star No. 1 is not at all on the follotving edge of the nebulosity, but well within it, to- wards the preceding side, thus totally differing from the ap- pearances laid down by all earlier drawings. Again, he rep- resents the space within the horseshoe and north-following star No. 1, to be largely filled with nebulosity, quite consistently with the Naval Observatory drawing, and utterly different from the drawing of Lassell (see Fig. 6). This fact is of great im- portance, since, if the nebulosity followed star No. 1, in 1862, Lassell would have so represented it (as he did not) and as Trouvelot has so drawn it, it is plain that an important change must have occurred to render it possible for a six-inch aperture to show nebulosity in 1875, in a space perfectly void of nebu- losity to Lassell's great reflector in 1862. On the whole, then, these drawings show that the western end of this nebula has moved relatively to its contained stars from 1838 to 1862, and again from 1862 to 1875, and always in the same direction. I conceive that this is the best conclusion that can be drawn from the ensemble of the drawings. If we confine our atten- tion to the three best ones, viz: Herschel's (1887), Lassell's (1862), and that of the Naval Observatory (1875), this conclu- sion comes out with greater distinctness. There is only one important feature in these three drawings which does not strictly agree with this supposition, namely that star No. 1 is in the same position with reference to the nebulosity in the first two of these which were made at an interval of twenty- five years and that they both differ from the last drawing made thirteen years after Lassell's. In every other respect the agree- ment is strictly with the above conclusion, and however much weight I might have been inclined to give to this disagreement, if the only data were those of the drawings, I cannot regard it as final in the light of a most careful examination of the neb- ula on the very fine night of March 21, 1876, when the various drawings were compared with the heavens. I add from the observing books a literal copy of my recorded observations on that occasion. Mctract from Observing- Book. "1876. March 21. l^^-VJ\ Observer Holden, Recorder, D. P. Todd. Omega-Nebula. R A. 18" 12«' N. P. D. 106° 2. Magni- fying power 175. E. S. Holden~On supposed changes in Nebula M. 17. 359 Star No. 1 brighter, but not much than 2. It precedes ,-V of the nebulosity of the preceding hook of the horseslioe. The line joining 1 and 10 is barely inside the nebulosity. The line joining 10 and 3 is inside the nebulosity but not much. 11 is just on following edge of the nebulosity, 34 follows the tvest branch of horseshoe, about ^ the distance 2-7 [this is a rough estimate only] and is clear of any nebulosity. The middle ^ of the line 6-1 is in the dark. The line 6-85 is all in the neb- ula. 8, 73, 11 about the same magnitude ; 73 is in faint neb- ulosity, on the preceding edge of it. Between 11 and 73 very faint nebulosity which joins these two stars. Line 3-13 is just inside the nebula. — Star No. 1 certainly precedes y^ths of west branch of horseshoe. Line 1-34 has its west /oths in nebula. 34 seems to be in the dark. Certainly a connection across 11-73 more distinct than in Naval Observatory drawing — more definite. Line 10-11 is all inside nebulosity. " 10-13 runs through faiuter nebulosity. 13, 14, 10 are on following side of a bay which is filled with very faint nebulosity. 43 brighter than 15. 44>42>15 but the inequality is not great. 15 is the faintest star of 43, 44, 42 The dark space within the horseshoe and bounded by 2, 7, 73, 11 is elliptic ; the largest diameter is perpendicular to the line 8-14, and the diameters are as 6 to 4. It seems more reg- ular in shape than in Naval Observatory sketch. Line 1-36 crosses fainter part of nebula about ^ of the way from 1 to 26 Preceding the line 1-10 is a darker space about to the distance 1-6. Preceding that, the sky is for 10' at least. [This requires confirmation.] There equal m width to the distance 1-6. Preceding that, the sky i nebulous for 10' at least. [This requires confirmation.] Ther is a faint prolongation from 6 towards south preceding. The shape oF Herschel's resolvable knot is correctly laid down by Trou- 3tly 1 velot. Two stars at its southern point and a tion of the two prongs of this knot Sky more transparent than I have ever seen it. Much annoyed by the forming of clouds." It will be seen that it cannot be doubted that star No. 1 is now in a position relative to the nebulosity quite different from that laid down bv Lassell in 1862. Further, all the earlier drawings except Hers'chel 1837, put star No. 1 well within the nebula, and hence we are forced to the conclusion that the west half of the horseshoe has moved with reference to this star. Trouve- lot's drawing with his small telescope is the only one not show- ing a similar and consistent motion with reference to the group of stars 10, 11, 3, 13, 15, etc., and even here we find evidence of changes in the same direction from the earlier drawings and the conclusion of the motion of the west one-half of the horse- 360 M S. Holden—On supposed changes in Nehula M. 17. shoe with reference to its contained stars acquires new weight. The eastern half of the horseshoe, or at least that portion of it north of stars 2 and 7 shows on the contrary no evidence of The observed changes in the drawings may be best accounted for by supposing a bodily shifting of the whole of the horseshoe in a plane nearly perpendicular to the line of sight, and on a pivot situated somewhere in the region of star No. 8, though, of course, it is not supposed that this is a real explanation of the physical changes. A careful study of the evidence relating to the Messierian streak indicates no motion with reference to the contained stars. Graphic methods lead to the angles of position of this portion given below, with which I have incorporated the results of measures by D' Arrest and Schoenfeld, Herschel, 1833: p=119°. f Schoenfeld, 1862 : p=112°, Herschel, 1837: p— 119°. mean of two, 115°,110^. Lament, 1837: p=113°? Lassell, 1863 : ? Mason, 1839: p=115°. Trouvelot, 1875 : p=113°. *D'Arrest, 1855 : p=122", Naval Observatory, 1875: p=ll 9°. mean of two, 128°, 1 1 6°. To sum up : — Tables III and V show that the stars have re- mained in their relative positions from 1837 to 1875 ; and a consideration of the drawings, whether taken as a whole or con- sidered according to their relative importance, shows that the horseshoe has moved with reference to the stars while the Messierian streak has not moved, and that therefore we have evi- dences of a change going on in this nebula. This may be a veritable change in the structure of the nebula itself such as was suspected by Schroeter, confirmed by Otto v. Struve and again confirmed by myself in the Nebula of Orion, or it may be the bodily shifting of the whole nebula in space in some plane inclined to the line of sight. A remarkable instance of a proper motion of this latter kind is that of the Trijid Nebula G. C. 4355, which has moved since 1833 so that the remarkable triple-star which was then quite clear from the nebulosity in a dark space formed by the junc- tion of the three dark channels, is now bv the evidence of Las- sell (1868) Winlock and Trouvelot (1874) and myself (1875) well involved, the motion being confirmed by Herschel's drawing at the Cape of Good Hope (1887) and Mason's of about the same The importance of the theoretical conclusions as to the con- stitution and distance of the nebulae, to be derived from the first well -authenticated instance of the variation in form of any one nebula, have seemed to me to justify the discussion of the * Abhand. d. K. Sach. Ac. d. Wissenscbaften, Bd. v. f Ast. Beob. Mannheim. Zweite Abth., 1815. J. Trowbridge — Thin plates of iron used y it as a means of proving the correctness or incor- f formulas which seem to be well established by other means. March, 1 Art. XLV. — On additional species of Fossils from the Primor dial of Troy and Lansinghurgh, Rensselaer County, N. Y. ; by S. W. Ford. In a paper communicated to this Journal about a year ago (March, 1875) I gave a short account of the Primordial rocks in the neighborhood of Lansingburgh, N. Y., and of the finding of several species of fossils in a deposit of conglomerate lime- 370 Ford— Primordial Fossihfrom Rensselaer County, N. Y. stone occurring there, I had hoped to be able to devote a good deal of time to the further study of this field during the past season, but other matters prevented, and while I have made a number of additional observations upon the structure of the re- gion, I am not, as jet, prepared to place them upon record. From the conglomerate-limestone* I have, however, made collections on several different occasions and with very gratify- ing results. The following is a list of the species known to me from this deposit at the present time, all of which have been obtained from the rock in place: (1) Olenelhis asaphoides, {2)Co- iwcephalites triliueatus, (3) Microdiscus speciosus, (4) Flyolithes Americanus, (5) U. impar, (6) HyolitheUus micans,\ (7) Stenotheca rugom, (8) OboleUa desquamata, (9) 0. intida. Of these 2, 4 and 9 were known from this deposit at the time of publication of my former paper. All of these species occur likewise in the Lower Potsdam limestones at Troy. This gives nine species in common to the two localities and is, I believe, conclusive as to the age of the conglomerate in question. I have no doubt but that, when further studied, this rock will furnish yet other species of the Troy series. Fossils from the Primordial at Troy. — For a long time my ex- aminations of the slates at Troy for fossils were unrewarded, notwithstanding 1 gave a good deal of attention to the subject. But on one occasion last summer I succeeded in finding several slabs containing undoubted plant remains. There appear to be two or three species. Of these, however, but one is represented in the collection by specimens sufficiently well preserved to ad- mit of anything like a satisfactory determination. This is of the genus Palceophycus, and is, according to Mr. Billings, to atelv submitted my specimens for compai ?al with his Palceophyois incipiens (Pal. Fos. p. 2)," from rocks of the same age in Verr north shore of the Straits of Belle Isle in Labrador. The prir cipal specimen in my collection is six inches long, nearly straigb of uniform width and without any evidences of branching. the same slab there are several shorter fragments. This adds Ford — Primordial Fossils from Rensselaer County, N. Y. 371 new class of fossils to the Troy fauna, and gives us, moreover, another example of a fossil species having an extensive geo- graphical range. It occurs in the coarse red-and-yellow-weathering slates of the Lower Potsdam group at Troy. During the past season I paid a large number of visits to the first band of limestone met with in going eastward from Troj, and which, in a former paper, I have characterized as limestone band No. 1. (This Journal, Aug., 1873 ) As the result of this I succeeded in obtaining several species of fossils not previously known from this band, although known to occur in the other limestone beds of the Troy Primordial, and along with these a single head of a new and very pretty Trilobite of the genus Ali- crodiscus. This I shall describe for the present as follows : Head, broadly rounded in front, nearly semi-oval in outline, greatest width at about the mid-length, sbghtly narrowed in passing backward from this point to the angles. Glabella conical, about two-thirds the length of the head, with two straight, moderately deep furrows extending all across, dividing the gla- bella in advance of the neck-furrow, into three parts of nearly equal length. Neck-furrow extending all across and deeper than the other glabellar furrows. The form of the neck seg- ment cannot be clearly made out owing to the damaged condi- tion of the specimen at this point. Dorsal furrows narrow, not deep, dying out toward the front of the glabella. Cheeks promi- nent, much swollen in the posterior third, without eyes or sutures. Marginal rim well defined all around, widest in front, with a conspicuously raised edge, inside of which there is a nearly flat or feebly concave space, and so bent upward in front as to give to the head on a side view a kind of slipper-like appearance On either side of the head, just inside of the raised marginal edge, there are three small tubercles situated within the limits formed by a line drawn across the head through the middle of the cheeks and another drawn parallel with it just in advance of the front of the glabella. Greatest width of the head 1^ lines ; length along the median line, including the neck-segment, the same. Differs from Micro- discus (Agnosim) lohatus Hall (Pal. N. Y., vol. i, p. 258, pi. Ixvii, figs. 5 a-f ), from the same locality, in its shorter and transversely furrowed glabella, its tuberculated margin, and in its general proportions. For this species I propose the name Microdiscus Meeki, in honor of Mr. F. B. Meek, whose labors in the cause of science have so vastly contributed to advance our knowledge of Amer- ican Paleontology. Occurs in conglomerate limestone of the Lower Potsdam group at Troy. Troy, N. Y., Jan. 15, 1876. 372 R. Spice— Method of tuning two Forks t Though the optical method of tuning, of Lissajous, gives good results, I find that two forks thus tuned to unison, may be a fraction of a vibration out^ without in any way disturbing the steadiness of the figure. In the 2d edition (English) of Tjndall's " Sound," in lecture VII, the author says, ''I divide this jar by a vertical diaphragm, and bring OTie of the forks over one of its halves, and the other fork over the other. The two semi-cylinders of air produce beats by their interference. On removing the diaphragm, the beats continue as lond as before, one half of the same column of air interfering with the other." Dr. Tyndall does not, however, mention the fact, that precisely the same result would have been obtained if no diaphragm had been employed, yet this is so. When two unison forks are struck on the knee, (or by a piece of lead covered with leather,) and then held together over their proper resonant column, the following phenomena will be observed. If there is a diflFerence between their rates, of several vibra- tions, there will of course be rapid beats ; if the forks are very nearly in tune, the beats will succeed each other at long inter- vals; further, when they are almost perfectly in tune, there will not be any beats properly so called, but after the sound of the forks has nearly died away, it will rise or swell out again very gradual decrease of sound, down to silence, without any rein- forcement at any time. t find that to carry out this tuning absolutely, both forks must be at the same temperature; consequently, after using a file on one of them, I place both forks in a vessel of water to equalize their temperatures, wipe them dry, and test them. To show the accuracy of this method I select the following example: A pair of Ut=» forks (256 vibrations) will sound over a column for about 185 seconds ; suppose that the sound decreases up to the 100th second, and then begins to rise ; obviously 100 sec- onds is the time of half a heat, or 200 seconds the beating time ; that is to say, it will have been demonstrated that one of the forks gave jirr of a vibration per second more than its fellow. What has been said of the unison, applies to other intervals. I have recently executed by this method, Ut,, Ut,, Ut^ and Ut^ forks for the physical cabinet of Columbia College. 230 Bridge Street, Brooklyn, Jan., 1876. p. B. Wilson — Silica of grasses and other plants. silicates ; by Prof. P. B. Wilson. My attention was called, some time since, in the examination of the ash of plants obtained by slow incineration in a platinum crucible, to the fact that when the ash is treated with dilute acid, and evaporated to dryness on the water bath, it does not pass into the gelatinous condition prior to complete decomposi- tion o\' the htjdrated mass, as is the case with the silicates soluble in acid, or those decomposed with sodium and potassium carbo- nates. If, however, the ash, prior to the treatment with acid, is subjected to a high temperature, a combination of silicic acid with the alkalies, the alkaline earths, and the earths takes place, if all are present ; then the silica separates in the gelatinous form and presents all of the chemical reactions of silicic acid obtained from the natural silicates. The silica obtained from ash by either of the processes indicated, on close examination, was observed to be entirely free from any combination, show- ing that it had been assimilated in the free state. To demonstrate this theory, my friend G-. I. Popplein, Esq., of this city, suggested the application of infusorial earth of the Kichmond formation — found in large quantities on the western shore of the Chesapeake bay — to land sown in wheat. I have obtained straw from wheat so grown, and have found, after it has been treated with nitric acid, and the siliceous remains placed on the field of the microscope, that it consisted wholly of the siliceous shields of Diatomaceae, the same as found i scenting that the larger discs in their perfe^ {Actim ' '" ' ■■ ^ ' ■• form were absent {AcUnocyclus A'hrenbergii and Actinoptychus undulatus). My conclusions are that they, and there probably may be other forms, are too large to enter the root capillaries. During the corning summer I will attempt if possible to make micrometer measurements of both. The discovery of Diatomaceae in their original form in this wheat straw precludes the possibility of the infusorial earth hav- ing undergone any chemical change in the soil, either by forming chemical combination with the alkalies, or the eartjjs, or by suf- fering physical disintegration from any catalytic action of any salts present in the soil In the particles of silica placed upon the glass slide, when they were completely separated from each other, the outlines of the individual diatoms were sharply and distinctly detined. On the other hand, when the physical action of ebullition with ni- tric acid was not sufficient for the complete separation of the Am. Jour. Sr-i., THrRn ^t.hies-Vou XI, No. 65.-May. 1876. 374 W. M. Fontame— Conglomerate Series of West Vvrginia. particles of the epidermal shield, there was observed a marvelous interlacing of the various forms, showing that they were con- veyed by the sap ceils directly to the section of the plant where they were destined to complete its structure. I have examined several specimens of straw, taken at random in the market; the silica in each specimen consisted of plates, very thin, and truncated at the comers. The result of these investigations shows the necessity of fine- ly divided silica in the soil, so minute as to be capable of pass- ing with facility through the sap cells ; secondly, that simple or compound silicates are useless as fertilizing agents, either nat- ural, or artificially prepared. We have no valid reason for forming any theory that vegetation can, through any known chemical law, separate the elements or their compounds from combinations so positive in their character. In this case we have a practical result capable of being veri- fied at any stage of growth of a plant, produced by the appli- cation of silica to the soil in the form of certain well defined microscopic organisms ; for, finding these in the ash to the ex- clusion of other particles of silica, they seem to be more accept- able for the plant structure. Free silica is hence the only condition in which it can enter the plant. I look upon this discovery as leading agricultural investiga- tions in a new direction, and it must eventually change many of the views expressed and accepted by scientists. Every precaution was used in having all the material thor- oughly cleansed, with a view both for accuracy and for remov- ing suspicions that these microscopic forms were the result of dust showers. [Concluded from page 284.] Dr. Stevenson, in his " Notes on the Geologv of West Vir- ginia," (read before the Am. Phil. Soc, Feb. 5, 1875,) speaks as follows of the " Great Conglomerate" of Kandolph county. " This rock forms the crest of Rich Mountain for nearly sixteen miles within the region examined. For the most part it is a coarse sandstone, loaded with pebbles from one third of an inch to two inches in diameter. Along the Staunton Pike it shows some layers of slightly micaceous and very compact sandstone near the bottom. Here it is greatly increased in thickness ; near the northern line of the state it is barely Zk>Q feet thick, but in Ran- dolph county it is not less than 600." He further says, " On the W. M. Fontaine— Conglomerate Series of West Virginia. 375 Staunton Pike, along the east slope of the mountain, there was seen midway in the conglomerate, what appeared to be the blos- som of a coal bed. As I had observed no evidences of coal in the conglomerate northward from this locality, this exposure was studied with some care, but nothing definite could be ascer- tained. Six miles farther south, on the same side of the moun- tain, a small coal bed occupies this place on the property of Mr. Bradley. There it is three feet thick." Dr. Stevenson also points out the mistake made both by himself, and myself, in ad- mitting the presence of coal in the conglomerate of Mononga- hela county. Dr. Newberry has shown that the Sharon coals of Pennsyl- vania, which are in the reports of the first survey put under the conglomerate, are really of later aue. There remains then no case where coals are found within the rock in its extension north- ward.* As is well known, the conglomerate in Pennsylvania north of this part of West Virginia, has thinned down to a ho- mogeneous rock of 100 feet and less. We must then look for the north extremity of the special basin in which the expansion of this rock took place, somewhere in Randolph county. In farther confirmation of this, Dr. Steve fact that in that county the upper Umbral shales, at one point, thin out entirely, and. the conglomerate is in contact with the limestone. In Ohio, the reports of that State show that the conglomerate has become too thin to form a continuous stratum. Proceeding southwest, from Ohio into Kentucky, we find the conglomerate series forming the west outcrop of the east Ken- tuckv coal field, being the sub-conglomerate coals of that State. Mr. Joseph Lesley, (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc, No. 91,) in his ac- count of this outcrop belt, shows that in that quarter the Umbral shales are entirely wanting, and that the coals under the con- glomerate lie immediately on the sub-carboniferous limestone. He traces this outcrop from Carter county southwest to Clinton county, on the south border of the State. The thickening of the series in that direction shows plainly that his line of investi- gation diverged from the edge of the basin and approached nearer and nearer toward the central portions. He states that the series consists of two members, the upper one a conglomer- atic sandstone, and the lower one a coal-bearing portioiL The upper member thins in proceeding southwest, while the lower sor Tyson's section of the Cumberland basin be correct, then it is clear t of Randolph Co., in Maryland, the conglomerate again has coal in "} gives on Savage River, above the Umbral shales, and "Coal-Measure Conglomerate," a thickness of 451 feet- hree coal beds, two feet, two feet six inches, and two feet ss is begun and ended with massive sandstones, having a ) New Eiver field. 376 W. M. Fontame— Conglomerate Series of West Virginia. member thickens at a more rapid rate. At Grayson, in Carter county, both together are only 90 feet thick, and\he lowest coal is a rnere streak formed between the base of the formation and the underlying limestone. Farther south west, in Morgan county, the upper member is 150 feet thick, and the lower member only eight feet, and contains a twelve-inch bed of coal. In Estell county, the upper member measures 200 feet and the lower fifty feet, with the coal bed increased to twenty-seven inches. On the southern border of the State, the lower"member increases to 225 feet, and contains two workable and three other thin beds of coal. The upper member does not now exceed eighty feet. This upper member is No. 21 of the Ealeigh sectioru Passing into Tennessee, we learn from Safford that the western outcrop presents the same essential features as in Kentucky. The red rocks of the Umbral are wanting, and the coal system rests on the sub-carboniferous limestone. But in Tennessee the thickness attained on the south border of Kentucky does not seem to be maintained in the counties immediately south of that point. Here also along the west outcrop in Fentress, White, and Franklin counties, the series is double, consisting of an upper sandstone and a lower coal-bearing portion. Of this latter Safford says, '' It consists of shales and sandstones, the latter sometimes absent, and ranges from a few feet to about 200." It contains two, sometimes three, rarely more, seams of coal. These are often too thin for mining, but locally swell out and form valuable deposits, from two and a half to four or five feet in thickness." This thinning out in the direction immediatelv south of Clinton county, Kentucky, seems to indicate that in" Tennessee the west end of the basin sweeps around more to the south. Safford's sections show that these rocks increase in thickness from west to east with an increase of the sandstones, while the coals diminish greatly in the most easterly portions of the field; for while the west outcrop has the character above given, we find at the ^tna mines, a point farther east, a thickness of 563 feet, including the upper conglomerate, and at Lookout Moun- tain, the most easterly point of the sections given in the south - em part of the field, we have 673 feet, composed mainiy of coarse sandstone, with hardly any coal. This diminution of coal eastward agrees with the facts given by Professor J. P. Lesley for Wise, Russel, and Tazewell counties, Virginia. One of the most striking points of difference between the strata shown on New Eiver, West Virginia, and the west out- crop, is the disappearance in the latter of the thick deposits of the red Umbral shales underlying the conglomerate series in West Virginia. This is explained by the fact that these sedi- ments are derived from the incoherent red shales, so abundant W. M. Fontaine — Conglomerate Series of West Virginia. 377 in the upper Devonian of the Alleghany region on the east border of the basin. In this upper Devonian we find abun- dant red shales, which in physical character cannot be distin- guished from those of the Umbral. None such are found in the Cincinnati anticlinal on the west border. It would also seem from what has been given above, that the quarter from which the greatest part of the sediment came, was the east, while the coals grew from the west. If we may draw any conclusions from the data given above, we may believe that the coal-bearing rocks accompanying the conglomerate were formed in a comparatively restricted basin, which commenced in the northeast corner of Alabama, and extended as far northeast as Randolph County, West Virginia. Its deepest part was probably along a northeast line which passes east of the Cumberland Mountains, and crosses New River near the center of Raleigh County. The strata occupy- ing the interval between the Devonian and the lowest of the "Lower Productive Coals" are on New River in this region at it the forma the deepest part of the depression. As to the character of the coal found on New River, in the series in question, it is a semi-bituminous coal, a fair example of which may be found in the seam mined and coked at Quin- nimont. An analysis of this seam furnished me by Mr. Morris, shows the fol owing : Carbon 75-89 ; vol. matter 18-19; ash 4-98 : water -74 The coke contains: Carbon 98-85 ; ash 6-15 ; sulphur •23. This small amount of bituminous matter is noteworthy when we consider the undisturbed condition of the coal beds. This disturbance is no greater than that found in the highly bituminous coals of later age in other parts of the State. We must explain this loss of volatile matter in some other way than by mechanical action. Plants. — There are onlv two horizons which have yielded me phmts. These are the Quinnimont coal seam, or coal No. 9, and coal No. 5, or No. 14 of the Piney River section. At the locality which I shall give as horizon of coal 5, Quinnimont, this coal bed does not show, owing to the imperfect exposure, but the shales containing the plants occur at the horizon of coal 5. I cannot pretend to have made anything like an exhaustive search for plants, even at these horizons. "l made my explora- tions on foot, armed only with a small hammer and satchel as the implements for procuring and transporting specimens. On 378 W. M. Fontaine — Conglomerate Series of West Virginia. the Raleigh road, and at the locality at Quinnimont, all my material was obtained from the weathered outcrop of the plant- bearing shales. In my second visit to the locality at Sewell Station I was in hopes of making large additions to my stock of the interesting plants found there on a former occasion. I was led to entertain this hope from the fact that in my previous visit I spent only an hour or two in the collection of the plants. But I found on my second visit that the impressions were re- stricted to a very thin layer in the roof, and that from the small amount of material on the "Dump" but little in addition could be obtained. The opening was inaccessible, being filled with water. It is an interesting fact regarding most of the plants found hers, especially the Megalopteris^ that they were seen nowhere else. The locality on the Ealeigh road of the Piney River section, is a very promising one, affording a number of good specimens, in the weathered outcrop. The following are the plants obtained from this series ; some of them were procured in my first visit and were noticed in my former paper. 1. Sphenopteris Hoeninghami Brongt. Quite common in large and beautiful specimens with coal No. 5, Raleigh County. No. 9, at Sewell Station. 3. Lepidodendron Selaginoides Sternb. Good impressions of the bark and leafy branches, are not uncommon with coal No. 6, Raleigh County. I found associated with this plant very small leafy branches closely resembling the figures by Lesque- reux, of Lycopodites Meekii, They are no doubt small branches of S. Selaginoides. 4. Sphenopteris AdiantoideslAx\^\. and Hutt. A single speci- men but well marked, was found with coal 5, Raleigh County. 5. Bornia radiata Brongt. Found with coal 9, at Sewell Sta- tion, and coal 5, Raleigh County. 6. Odonlopteris gracillima Newb. A single pinnule was found at Sewell Station with coal 9. 7. Neuropteris, species ? Of this plant I have some detached pinnules, and one pinna with five pinnules, not enough for positive determination. It was obtained at Sewell Station from coal No. 9. The following features are shown in the specimens obtained: Fronds bipinnate; pinnules placed obliquely, and remotely; attached by the central portion of the base; sub- alternate, 2^ cm. long, 8 mm. wide, margin strongly repand, oblong lanceolate, acute, upper portion of the base rounded obliquely, lower portion forming a short round lobe, midrib slender, but strongly defined, diminishing in size, and near the end, splitting up into nervules, rather flexuous. Side nerves W. M. Fontaine- Conglomerate Series of West Virginia. 379 closely placed, leaving the midrib at a very acute angle, strongly arched so as to meet the sides at a right angle and forking repeatedly. This plant so far as can be gathered from the imperfect spe- cimens obtained, is of the same type with the Ahthopteris ohscura of the Pennsylvania reports. Fig. 13 of these reports would give a good representation of it if the pinnules were separate to the base, more remote, and inserted on the rachis as above described. The nervation is the principal point of difference. It will be noted that this plant has many features in common with the Mesozoic aletlwpterids. 8. Cordaites Rohbii Dawson? This plant is rather rare and occurs at Sewell Station with coal 9, and at Quinnimont at the horizon of coal 5. 9. Alethopteris Serlil? Brongt. This plant, which is the most abundant one in coal 9 at Sewell Station, differs in some points from A. Serlii. The pinnules are more slender, and are decurreut by their lower base which forms a narrow wing, while the upper portion of the base is obliquely cut away so as to cause the midrib to spring from the upper margin, which is barely reached by the decurrent portion of the pinnule next above. The pinnules are usually strongly recurved. In these points it resembles Dawson's A. discrepans of the Devonian. It may be a new species. 10. Calamites cannceformis Schloth. This is not rare in the slates over coal No. 9, a ^ " 11. Alethopteris grandifoUa Newb. This plant which i which \] I of coal 5 at Quinnimont at first sight of ntire pinnules, resembles No. 9, but in its nervation, ; resembles that of Neuropteris, and in other points, it is very different, I have placed this under Alethopteris grandi- folia from which it is somewhat different, for the same reason that I included No. 9 under A. Serlii, being unwilling, without more abundant material, to place these plants apart The forms of No. 11 seem all to come from the upper part of the frond, and belong to the broad leaved variety of A. grandifolia, if they are identical with it They represent the terminations of fronds or compound pinnae, showing in their lower parts, pinnae pinnately cut into pinnules, which become more and more united toward the summit of the frond or pinna ; chang- ing first to pinnules, with deeply undulated margins, and finally passing into pinnules with entire borders. These closely resemble the broad leaved variety of A. grandifolia, but are relatively narrower, and less united at the base. In their mode of insertion, they resemble to a certain extent No. 9, being somewhat cut away above and decurrent below. In No. 9 the nervation is that of A. Serlii, while in the plant in question it 380 W. M. Fontaine— Conglomerate Series of West Virginia. resembles somewhat that of a Neuropteris in the fact that the vation is like that of No. 7, but in the insertion of the pin- nules by the entire base, in their decurrence, and other points, this is a true Akthopteris. 12. Nenropteris Liiulkyana Sternb. Var. This beautiful Neu- ropteris is common at Sewell Station, where it forms the only plant found at the horizon of coal 5. It also occurs with this coal, in the Piney Eiver section, on the Ealeigh road. While in the main point it clearly resembles N. Lmdleyana^ figured in the Fossil Flora of Great Britain, as N. Loschi, there are some points of difference. Our plant has not the same degree of sharpness in the terminations of the upper simple pinnae, and these are not so much narrowed at the base. Again the rounded pinnules of the lower compound pinnae have a much more slender midrib than that indicated in the figure of the British plant. They are also more closely placed, in the greater bluntness of the upper simple pinnsG, and in their nearer approach to a heart-shaped base, this plant approaches nearer to N. Loschi, but it is very different, and may perhaps be best considered as a variety of N. Lindleyana. 13. Neuropteris tenuifolia Schloth. Found with coal 6 on the Ealeigh road, apparently rare. 14. Sphmopteris, species? This plant was found with coal 5 on the Ealeigh road. The fragments found do not enable me to determine it satisfactorily. It belongs to the Schimpers sec- tion, Sphenoptf^is cheilanthides. It is in some respects like S. Duhmssonis, but differs in others. The following features are shown in the fragments obtained: Pinnae oval lanceolate, placed alternately at right angles on the rachis. Pinnules obliquely and alternately placed on the secondary rachis which at the base is narrowly winged and from which they diverge: oblong, narrowing considerably to the summit, and slightly so at the insertion of the base, where they are decurrent. The pinnules diminish rapidly in size from the base to the apex of the pinnae. At the base they are one era. long and four mm. wide. The pinnules of the base of the pinnae are cut obliquely into three oval tooth-shaped lobes on a side, which are remotely placed, and diverge slightly from the midrib. In ascending, the num- ber of the lobes and the depth of their incision diminishes until the pinnules become entire, when they are very small and mere lobes of the wing of the rachis, which at the extrem- ity of the pinnae is much widened. The plant seems to have leaflets of leather-like consistency; the nervation is obscure 15. Spheiwpteris, species ? This plant, which is not uncommon with coal 6 on the Ealeigh road, has a strong resemblance to W. M. Fontaine— Conglomerate Series of West Virginia. 381 Sphenopteris Newlerryi^ but shows some features not seen in the figure of that plant given in the Penns;y-lvania reports. From a study of the isolated fragments, in which form alone I could get it, the plant shows the following features : The pinnules of the lower pinnse have the form of those similarly placed in S. Newherryi^ but are proportionally narrower at the base, dis- tinctly separate, and more obliquely placed. In ascending, the pinnules of the upper pinnae are finally reduced to circular seg- ments of the laminae of the pinnse, and now if seen apart would be taken to belong to a different plant. These upper pinnae are placed, obliquely and alternately. They are ovate lanceolate, 12 mm, long and B broad at base ; having the general shape and mode of incision shown in X decipiens of the Pennsylvania reports. But unlike that, the termination of the pinnse is pro- longed into an acute point. Proceeding still higher on the frond, these pinnae are reduced to semicircular tobes of the broad wing of the rachis which now forms the entire lamina of the upper part of the frond or compound pinna. The nerves are to a great extent masked by the thick leathery character of the leaflets, but, so far as mode out, are as follows : In the lower distinct pinnules there is a strong midrib which disappears before reaching the extremity of the pinnule, and gives it at first sight the appearance of a Pecopteris. The side nerves spring very obliquely from the midrib, diverge very slowly from it, curving gently out to the margin, and fork once or twice, being quite distant from each other. In the rounded lobes of the up- per pinnae, the nerves rise from the whole base of the lobe curv- ing gently outward, and downward, while forking as before. Here the nervation resembles that of S. dihtata as figured in the Fossil Flora of Great Britain. The same nervation marks the extremity of the frond. The most characteristic feature is the rarity of the nerves, and if the plant should prove to be new, ify the specific name varinervis. \enopl>ylUtes spinosus Gopp. ? Fragments were found on the Kaleigh road with coal 5, of a plant showing the basal portion of several pinnse, which seem to be identical with the above named plant. Not enough material was obtanied to identify it with certainty. 17. Sphetrnpteris macilenia Lindl. and Hutt. This plant seems to be abundant on the Raleigh road, associated with coal 5. Good specimens were obtained. 18. Uquiseiites, species f A single sheath, resembling that of an equisetites, was found on the Raleigh road with coal 5. 19. Asterophyllites acicularis Daws. ? A specimen showing several whorls of leaves having the character of the above named plant, was obtained from coal 5 on the Raleigh road. Not enough is shown for positive identification. 382 W. M. Fontaine— Conglomerate Series of West Virginia, single nut was of a different character from any figured or described to ray knowledge, was found at the horizon of coal 5 at Quinnimont. It is perfectly smooth with no markings, is about 12 mm. long and 5 mm, wide, cylindrical in shape, and bluntly rounded at the ends, one of which is furnished with curved stem-like appendages, as if for attachment. Nuts are quite rare, only these two being 21. Megalopteris Hartii Andr. In my last visit to the plant locality at Sewell Station, which furnished me on my former visit the specimens of Megalopteris, and which is coal in 9, I pro- cured a few additional specimens of this plant, among which, by comparison with the plates which Professor Andrews has had the kindness to send me, I recognized his M. Hartii Of this plant I have one specimen having the ends of the two leaves at the summit of the frond, showing about six inches of their length. Another specimen shows the termina- tion of a much smaller frond, with three leaves. Along with these leaves I find several of a small Megalopteris which may prove a different species although the nervation, so far as it can be made out in the obscure state of all the plants found here, seems to be very near that of M. Hartii. Of the small plant, no more than two leaves together have ever been found, and no specimen shows the point of junction of these. The small size seems to be a constant feature. Such leaves are about 6 cm. long and 1 cm. wide ; they are narrowly elliptical in shape, with a rather more acute termination than that of M. Hartii. The midrib seems to have been large for a leaf of this size, and very prominent. It leaves a deep rectangular impression. 22. Megalopteris, species ? This plant is the most common form found at Sewell Station. It differs from all the forms of Pro- fessor Andrews' plants figured in the decided acuteness of the leaves or pinnules ; in which respect it is more like M. Daiu.ioni. From this latter plant it ditlers in the more decided elliptical outline of the leaves, the more rapid narrowing of the leaves toward their extremities, and most of all, in the nervation, which so far as can be made out, is near that of M. Hartii, being fine, from closely placed slender nerves, which fork near the base and again near their middle ; apparently, higher up, than in J/. Har- tii. The nerves are nearly parallel in their coarse ; and curve very slowly outward to meet the border of the leaf. I have one specimen which shows one entire leaflet, and the base of another, which diverges from the rachis at the base of the first, showing the ordinary alternate arrangement on a winged rachis, of the leaflets in plants of this genus. The entire leaflet of the specimen, is 14 era. long, and 2^ to S cm. wide. It is strongly W. M. Fontaine— Conghmeraie Series of West Virginia. 383 narrowed toward the base, giving it an oblaneeolate shape. Near the extremity, it is rapidly narrowed to an acute point. It is most probably a new species, and if so, might receive the specific name Seweilensis. 23. Sphenopteris ohtusiloba Brongt. Found rarely at Sewell Station, with coal No. 9. 24. Palceopieris Jacksoni Schimp. Cyclopieris Jacksoni Daws. Only one or two small fragments of this plant, were found at Sewell Station with coal 9. 25. Sphenophyllum antiquum Daws. A small fragment only was found at Sewell Station with coal 9. 16. 0. Quinnimont, where with the variety of Alethopteris grandifolia, it forms the most abundant plant. Some pinnales show an obscure lobing not unlike some of the pinnules of iSphenopteris Lesquereuxii. Some scattered broad pinnules, with undulating borders, were found here which, from their appearance, would seem to have belonged to some part of this plant. 27. Cdamites approximatus Schloth. Found at Sewell Sta- tion, with coal No. 9. The plants above named, with the exception of the few got from Sewell Station previously, and mentioned in my former paper, were all obtained in my last visit to the New Kiver re- gion. As I stated before, this list can by no means be taken as exhaustive of the plants, even at the locality where they were gathered. In no case could 1 spend more than a couple of hours in collecting, and, having no tools, my collection was made by picking up fragments fallen from the disintegrated outcrop. This was the case with the coal on the Ealeigh road, which fur- nished so many of the above specimens. The following fossils were obtained from near the top of No. 1 of the transition beds at Quinnimont and consequently just from the base of the conglomerate series. They were kindly determined for me by Dr. J. J. Stevenson. He states that in most cases they were too badl}' preserved for specific determi- nation. Invertebrate fossils from the base of the Conglomerate iSeries at Quinnimont. 1. Productus cora D'Orb. 6. Myalina. 2. Athyris sp. 7. Macrodon. 3. Spirlfera Leidyi N. & P. 8. Liihophaga. 4. Aviculop-cten. 9. Chcenomya ? 384 E. S. Dana— New twins of Staurolite and Pyrrhotite. Umbral limestone in Monongalia Co., W. Va. He thinks that the Myalina and CluEnomya are new species. Also that 'the Lithophaga is so near that referred with doubt to L. lingualis of Phillips, by M. k W., that he cannot distinguish it, although this is a species of the St. Louis group. I may state here that the Palmjpteris Jacksoni of the Con- glomerate series, is the typical plant, and very different from the plant found at Lewis Tunnel, and given in my previous pa- per as P. Jacksoni. I have additional specimens from Lewis Tunnel, which show without doubt that, as Professor Andrews has suggested, this latter is a new species. It will be seen from the above, that the representatives of the Devonian flora of Canada are quite common in the Conglom- erate Series. The uppermost strata of the Devonian in West Virginia are at least 3500 feet below coal 5 ; and still farther below coal 9, which affords the plants of most decided Devoni- an type. Besides, the forms of Megalopteris, the Paloeopteris^ Cordaites Rohhii, The Cordaites has the nervation and termination of the leaves of a Robbii, but I mark it doubtful, as I have no entire leaves. The Sphenopteris adianiorides, is a good deal like the plant fig- ured as Oydopteris ohtusa, by Dawson in the Acadian Geology, although smaller. The plant marked doubtfully Alethopteris ASerlii, is very near A. discrepans. The Sphenopteris allied to *.V. Xewberryi, in its upper pinnae shows the mode of lobing, and has something of the aspect of S. marginata. It will be noted that along with these plants we have some of the forms found in coal No. 1 of Ohio. The upper pinnae of the plant identified with Sphenopieris maciUnta I cannot have ph ated •' from Dawson's Cyclopteris valida. Besides thcvse, Art. XLl^i.—Minernlogical Noies ; by Edward S. Dana. No. 111.— On new twins of ^Slaurolite and Pyrrhotite. 1. On Staurolite Crystals from Fannin Co., Georgia. Through i in New Haven, some of which show forms which are new and interesting. Pro£ Bradley mentions two distinct localities, visited by him. which afford the staurolite in considerable quantities. The first is at Valley Eiver, near Murphy, Chero- kee Co., North Carolina. The crystals at this place are large K S. Dana — New twins of Staurolite and Pyrrhoiite. 385 and coarse. They occur in a raetamorphic rock which Prof. Bradley states belongs to the Cincimiati group. The second locality is in Fannin Co., Georgia, 12 miles southeast of Ducktown, Tenn. The crystals obtained here are of quite uniform size, averaging an inch in length, very perfectly developed, the faces being smo( "" ' ally perfectly developed, the faces being smooth, though i ithout polish. They < I soft r I schist, bek ing geologically, according to the same authority, at the base of the Quebec Group. The rock is extensively decomposed so that the crystals are found abundantly loose on the surface of the ground. Large quantities of them may thus be picked up,'of which perhaps one-tenth are perfect crystals. Tney are in general nearly free from the gangue. The crystals are with rare exceptions twins. The most common twins are those well known in this species ; that is, (a), those having the composition face |-i, with the vertical axes nearly at right angles to each other ; and {h\ those having the composition-face f-|, with the vertical axes crossing at a angle of about 60°. Under these two types there is a very wide diversity of form arising from the extension or partial suppression of various of the occurring planes. A very com- mon feature in the twins of the first kind mentioned is the almost entire suppression of one pair of the macrodome planes l-t, opposite each other, with the corresponding extension of the other pair ; this same kind of hemihedral development is also extended to the prismatic planes giving rise to forms of \erj oblique appearance. Three new forms are shown in figures 1, 2 and 3. Figure 1 exhibits a new method of twinning not before observed in this species, and making the third type of penetration twins pecu- liar to staurolite. The measured angle of the two brachypina- coids {i-%) for the crystals in their twinning position is 70" 30'. This gives for the composition-face 2-3', which requires for the above angle 70° 18'. In this case the axis of revolution very nearly coincides with the plane i-% and the r-l, of the second individual is very nearly parallel to the prism I of the first. Attention has been called, by Prof Dana, to the fact that if the 386 E. S, Dana— New twins of Staurolite and Pyrrhotite. occurriiipr prism on staurolite be made i-|, the twinning planes will be then planes of simple axial ratios in accordance with the usual law, namely l-l (instead of |-?) and 1 (instead of |-|). re described would then have already bsen mentioned that when the twinning plane is f | the vertical axes cut each other at an angle of about 60°. It would be expected from this fact that compound crystals of three individuals would be found, the entire circum- ference being thus divisible by six, and this has been the case. Figure 2 represents one of a considerable number of crystals of this description in which three interpenetrating individual crystals cut each other respectively at angles of 60° and 120°, and, being symmetrically developed, form thus a six-rayed star. Still another form is shown in figure 3 ; it is interesting as being a combination of two methods of twinning in the same com- pound crystal which has been rarely observed in any species. The vertical axis of two of the single 'crystals are at right angles to each other, and that of the third cuts each of the other two at an angle of 60^. This latter fact explains the occurrence of this form. The crystals figured were from the cabinet Brush. 2. On a twin of Pyrrhotite. The annexed of pyrrhotite, wh the kindness of Dr. Harrington of Montreal. The crystal itself is somewhat more than three times the 4. size of the cut, and is almost as sym- metrically formed. The pyramidal planer (r) are uniformly deeply striated in a horizontal direction, parallel to the basal section ; the faces are thus made quite uneven. Furthermore these same planes show a considerable number of minute longitudinal depressions, or etch- ings, parallel to the vertical axis. This is a prominent feature of all the pyramidal planes alike, thus confirming the accepted hexagonal nature of the species. The transverse crystal, as seen in the figure, is quite irregular, being made up of a group or bundle, of small crystals in parallel position ; this is especially :rue of one ol the extremities. These small crys- tals are some of them free from the striations alluded to and allow of exact measurement. The angle for ry^r (basal) thus obtained is 163^ ( O/sr=98°30') ; this corresponds to the form ^\ which requires 162° 40' (0/^ Y=98° 20'). The twinning plane B. J. Harrington— Pyrrhotite from EUzahethtown. S87 the pyramid 1, by which the vertical axes of the two indi- viduals are brought nearly at right angles to each other, since 0/\ 1 = 135° 8'. This combination of three individual crystals is analogous to the penetration -twins of staurolite, described Dr. Harrington has kindly furnished some notes upon the occurrence and chemical composition of this pyrrhotite, which he allows me to append here. The deposit from which the crystal of pyrrhotite was ob- ained is economically important as being the source from /hich considerable quantities of pyrite have been derived for he manufacture of sulphuric acid. It occurs on the nine- eenth lot of the second concession of Elizabeth town, Ontario, n rocks belonging to the Laurentian system, but its true char- cter has not yet been ascertained. To the mineralogist it is especially interesting on account of the association of minerals which it affords. The minerals number a dozen, and proba- pecies, being pyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, quartz, bly Of these the pyrite and calcite occur in greatest abundance. The former is generally massive, but is sometimes well crystal- lized — the most common form being a combination of the cube and octahedron. Perfect octahedrons with the axes more than two inches in length have been obtained, and mammillary groupings of cubical crystals with rounded faces occasionally occur. According to the determinations of Hunt and Macfar- lane (Geol. of Can., 1863, p. 606, and Can. Nat., 1st Ser., vol. vii, p. 194) the pyrite contains about half a per cent of oxide of cobalt. Calcite forms the principal gangue in which the other mine- rals are embedded. It is mostly massive, but is also found on the walls of cavities in the form of obtuse rhorabohedral crys- tals, often curiously modified. It ranges from opaque to trans- parent, and varies much in color, being white, gray, fawn- colored and sometimes red. The compact black mineral alluded to above also frequently forms the gangue of tbe pyrites and with it is occasionally associated a triclinic feldspar (^proba- bly labradorite) showing a beautiful play of colore. Magnetite is rather common and sometimes occurs in the form of small irregular grains scattered through the calcite. The mineral which I take to be cacoxenite — the occurrence of which in 388 J. L. Smith — Carbon Compounds in Meteorites. Canada has not before been noted— is found in beaatifal little yellow tufts on the walls of cavities in the calcite, the tufts be- ing often so close together as to form a velvety coating. It is generally associated with pyrite. Quartz, mica, apatite, talc and siderite were noticed, but they did not form important constituents of the deposit. Pyrrhotite was common in portions of the deposit worked several years ago, but has become less so as the mining has advanced. It is sometimes massive, but more frequently well crystallized. In general it is embedded in calcite, but it has also been found in steatite. The following is an analysis of a crystal : Iron, 60-560 Copper,. -145 Nickel, -112 Cobalt, -Ill Sulphur, 39-020 100-044 Hardness between 3| and 4. Specific gravity 4-622. Readily attracted by the magnet and possessing polarity ; the opposite poles seem to be situated not at the extremities of the crystals but along the sides. A few months ago a crystal of the pyrrhotite was sent to Professor J. Lawrence Smith, who was anxious to compare its composition with that of troilite. The results of his analysis sent to me by him are as follows : Iron, 59-88 Sulphur, _ 39-24 Silica (gangue rock), 1-01 Specific gravity, 4-642 Art. L. — Researches on the Solid Carbon Compounds in Meteor- ites ; by J. Laweence Smith, Louisville, Ky. In the study of Meteorites, it is well known that, of all the simple and compound substances met with in these bodies, the carbon has received the least study and investigation. This has arisen principally from the limiteci amount of material at the command of the chemist, — a fact to be regretted, since if any one element more than another demands attention, and excites J. L. Smith — Carbon Covipounds in Meteorites 389 wonder at the part it plays, either as an element or in its end- less combinations with other substances, that element is carbon. In its elementary condition we see it in crystals of exceeding hardness and brilliancy in the diamond, and also in irregular, nearly opaque masses that are not to be confounded with the diamond. Again, we have carbon in a soft, black, unctuous state, either in lustrous flaky crystals, or in fine-grained masses. It also occurs in the harsh and gritty form of coke, sometimes changed to an unctuous body approaching graphite in aspect, yet different physically as well as in some of its chemical rela- Deposits of anthracite furnish carbon in yet another Besides these, the results of d ' ' ' - - known as organic compounds give qu of carbon, made either by the incomplete combustion of hydro- carbons, or by passing through red-hot tubes the vapors of hy- drocarbons, chloride of carbon, sulphide of carbon, etc., or by the decompositions of such substances as carbonic acid, carbides of boron, of iron, of manganese, etc. These various forms of carbon have certain chemical differ- ences, more or less marked, which differences have attracted the attention of chemists, although no one has studied them with much care or success except M. Berthelot, their investigation being difficult on account of the want of proper methods. M. Berthelot obtained his results by taking advantage of the sin- gularly slow oxidizing action of a mixture of nitric acid and chlorate of potash on carbon, first pointed out by M. B. C. Brodie, in I860,* in experiments on graphite, by which he pro- duced for the first time what is known as graphitic oxide. He operated by this means on very many specimens of carbon, from the diamond to lamp-black, embracing a large variety of artificially prepared carbons, and discovered certainly six or eight more or less distinct chemical characteristics of these dif- ferent carbons. t The physical differences of some of them are well known ; among these differences none is more remarkable than that of their specific heats. Other bodies known as elements, as silicon and boron, oxygen, etc., take upon themselves different conditions called allotropic conditions,^ — a term applied to the isomeric conditions of simple bodies ; but carbon differs from these, not only in exhibiting a most wonderful variety of allo- tropic conditions, but also in the phenomena coming under the head of isomerism, polymer' , April, I conditions, < ig and Petit, they still occupy a singular posit . Jour. Sci.-Third Series, Vol. XI, No. 6 390 J. L. Smith — Carbon Compounds in Meteorites. so, that we are disposed to take this body away from the rank of a mere element, and call it a protean body that gives rise to substances of endless form and variety by combining with a very limited number of elements. Additional interest attaches to carbon from the fact of its being regarded as belonging preeminently to the organic king- dom. In fact, some of the best observers and investigators assume that there is no such thing as mineral carbon among the rocks of our globe, and that wherever found, whether as dia- mond, graphite, or coal, it is a product derived from organic matter, in which it had first performed its part in the economv of nature. A still more exciting interest has been felt in carbon since the new department of celestial chemistry has received the attention of scientists. And here we are not left for our know- ledge of celestial carbon to the attenuated form of it which can be detected only by astronomical instruments ; for masses of matter from other spheres reach our globe from time to time, bringing with them specimens of solid carbon for our investi- gation, and, at the same time, perplexing our minds with ques- tions as to its mineral or organic origin, and as to the existence or not of life on other planets, and in other systems of planets. Like the footprints of former life on therock strata of our globe, these indications in what we call meteorites, however slight they may be, are not to be disregarded. While I do not wish to arrogate to myself any undue merit in the study of this subject, I must say that I believe that my methods published in 1855* set forth more prominently than it had been done be- fore, the proper method of research for arriving at correct con- clusions. It is clear that to attain positive results, the astrono- mer, physicist, mineralogist, and chemist must not run counter to one another in the use of the facts severally studied by them ; and in all that I have done in this direction, it has been my effort to keep this in view. In the present memoir, it is my object to develope new facts, and consider some points in connection with the carbon of meteorites, 1. The Carbonaceous Meteorites. Certain well known meteorites, from among those whose fall has been observed, have been called, from their aspect, and from their containing a small amount of carbon, carbonaceous meteorites, although the small amount of carbon contained in them is not sufficient to account for their color. Perhaps the term melanotic meteorite would be a more appropriate one, to distinguish them from the stony and iron meteoritea There ♦ This Journal, H, lix, 153, 322. J. L. Smith — Carbon Compounds in Meteorites. 391 are but four of them yet known, viz: that which fell at Alais in 1806, that at Kold-Bokeveldt in 1888, that at Kaba in 1857, and that at Orgueil in 1864. They contain, respectively, about 3, 2, 0"6, and 6 per cent of carbonaceous matter. I would here remark that the Alais, Kold-Bokeveldt, and Orgueil are more closely allied to each other than to the Kaba The predominating mineral constituents are about OrgTieil, Sihca ;n'22 30-80 Magnesia 22-21 22-20 Iron protoxide. -29 -03 29-94 If we now contrast these mineral constituents with those pre- dominating in well-known meteoric stones, a most striking fact presents itself — one not commonly realized by those engaged in the study of these bodies. It is seen on comparing the above with the following tables : Silica 35-30 38-13 47-30 4730 50-08 40-61 Magnesia 31-76 17-67 24-53 24-53 20-14 36-34 Iron protoxide 26-70 29-44 28-03 28-03 19-85 19-21 From these tabular statements, it will be seen that, deducting the small amount of carbon contained in the black meteorites, the mass of mineral matter constituting them is about the same, and corresponds thus with the so-called common type of me- teoric stones ; and hence the mineral matter to which these con- stituents belong must be the same in the two classes of meteor- ites, viz : olivines and pyroxenes, differing only in the more or npact form of these mi r writings of g 3 find little si e stress laid on these facta Thus, M. Meunier, L paper on the origin of meteorites, published in the Cosmos of December, 1869. expresses his amazement that I should speak of the circumscribed uniformity of the composition of meteor- ites as evidence of a circumscribed cosmical origin of these bodies, both with reference to the sphere or spheres whence they come, as well as their rock structure. He takes so opposite a view as to say (p. 9), " So far from the meteorites showing such a resemblance, we can establish between meteoric iron, olivine meteorites, aluminous meteorites, and carbonaceous me- teorites, dift'erences as great as between the most different terrestrial rocks." An assertion which would include all the ranges of rocks and sedimentary deposits from the basalt and granite to the cretaceous and tertiary deposits. Let any one look at the above table, and say whether < 392 J. L. Smith — Carbon Compounds in Meteorites. he sees so vast a difference in the mineral constituents of the different meteorites there enumerated ; and yet they represent the two extremes of these bodies so far as their external proper- ties are concerned. It is well known that three or four mine- rals represent the great mass of the constituents of every meteor- ite in various proportions, viz : nickeliferous iron, olivine, pyroxene, and anorthite, especially the first three; and the purely iron meteorites must be recognized as magnified masses of the metallic particles to be found in every stony meteorite, not excepting even the carbonaceous meteorites.* My object, however, in this paper is not to discuss at length the general internal resemblances of these bodies, as I may have occasion to do it more fully at another time. I wish simply to note, that black and pulverulent as are the carbonaceous mete- orites, they are not removed by their mineral constituents from the so-called common meteorites. I now pass on to show that even in their carbonaceous constituent they are strongly linked even to the iron meteorites. 2. Graphite carhon in the Iron Meteorites. — Ever since the inter- nal structure of this class of meteorites has been examined by sections through the center of these compact metallic masses, nodular concretions have been noted in their interior, the most common of which consist of troilite, a protosulphide of iron, and filling ovoidal cavities. Sometimes these troilite concretions have a thin coating of a lighter colored mineral known as schreibersite ; and this last is also found alone in concretionary masses which are usually angular or lamellar. Less frequent concretions than either of the above, and even more remarkable, consist of carbon of the character of graphite : these, like the troilite, usually fill irregular ovoidal cavities, and are more or less contaminate"d with the latter mineral. The most important of the meteoric irons containing these nodules, that have come under my immediate observation, are the Toluca, the Cranbourne, the DeKalb, and the Sevier : the last two have received my special study, the latter furnishing much the larger part of the material in my hands. Character of the graphite nodules. — These concretions differ more or less in appearance, while their general character is the same. In this communication I call special attention to a large nodule taken from the very center of the Sevier iron, the largest that has come under my observation, and perhaps the largest known. It was detached from the iron entire and perfect in every respect Its greatest length is 60 ram. ; its dimensions in * At present, the OrgueU and Rhoda meteorites are the only t«ro in which no positive evidence of the presence of nickeliferous iron has been traced; in the Orgueil, however, we find nearly three per cent of oxides, nickel and cobalt, and the fihoda has not been very criticaUy examined. J. L. Smith— Carlon Gumpounds in Meteorites. 393 The weight before at of an irregular dumb-bell, flattened on one side, and slightly nodular on the surface. Its color is plumbago-black, except at small places on the surface, where there is a little bronze-colored troilite. Its texture is remarkably close and compact, and it is cut readily by the saw except when the tool encounters particles of enclosed troilite. Its structure and powder is not unlike that of the close-textured graphite of Borrowdale in Cumberland, England, and quite unlike the scaly graphite such as that from Ceylon, or that found in certain cast irons. Examined from the circumference to the center this nodule presents the following appearances : About one-fifth of the cir- cumference of the section is made up of troilite with a thickness of one millimeter. The remainder of the section has all the aspect of graphite, except in a few spots. In the nodule there is a small mass of troilite not unlike in form the entire nodule ; Again portion IS npletely from the exterior portion by a thin belt of e-half to three-quarters of a millimeter in thickness, igain on other parts of the surface small particles of troilite are to be seen. The specific gravity of this graphite is 2-26 ram., as deter- mined on a piece in which no troilite was visible to tbe eye, and after it was immersed in water and placed under the re- ceiver of an air pump to abstract the air from its pores. Chemical character of the graphitic nodule. — When pulverized and heated in a short glass tube from 100° to 150° C, water is given ofif which is doubtless water absorbed from the air by the graphite. If heated a little higher and then brought close to the nose, a slight empyreumatic odor is apparent : if heated still higher, there is a slight odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. If heated in the open air the carbon is burnt with difl&culty, showing its true graphitic nature. Treatment of the graphite, by ether. — Yery pure and concen- trated ether was added to two grams of material in powder and rubbed up in a porcelain mortar; then poured into a small beaker ; a little more ether was added and the two allowed to remain together for 12 or 18 hours, the vessel being covered to prevent evaporation. The ether was then filtered off from the graphite which was finally washed with a little ether. The ether was allowed to evaporate slowly in the uncovered beaker placed where the temperature was about 33^ C. After the ether had evaporated, long colorless acicular crystals covered the sides of the vessel, and some shorter ones were in the bottom. There were also some rhomboidal crystals and rounded particles. The 394 J. L. Smith — Carbon Corn-pounds in Meteorites. solid residue exhaled a peculiar odor of an aromatic character, somewhat alliaceous. The quantity of these crystals was small, not exceedinor 15 milligrams from two grams of the graphite. Heated on a piece of platinum foil they fuse at about 120° C. Heated in a small tube closed at oae end, they first melt and then volatilize, condensing in yellow drops that soon solidify leaving a carbonaceous residue. They are not soluble in alcohol, but very soluble in sulphide of carbon. Fuming nitric acid oxidizes the material, and gives, as one of the products, sulphuric acid. The quantity was too small to admit an ulti- mate analysis, but it was very evident that sulphur was the Eredominating constituent, the remainder being carbon and ydrogen. These three elements may be combined, forming a peculiar sulph-hydrocarbon, which in a previous note I called celestialite, or it may be sulphur containing a minute quantity of a hydrocarbon that gives the peculiar odor and determines the somewhat singular form of crystallization of the sulphur ;' for these acicular crystals may be only elongated rhombohe- Be the compound what it may, it is a matter of chemical and astronomical interest that a solid graphite nodule thus encased in iron should contain a sulph-hydrocarbon, or free sulphur and a hydrocarbon. The graphite powder, after treatment with ether, was then treated with bi-sulphide of carbon (which was re distilled just before use) and after standing two or three hours was thrown on a filter; the filtrate was evaporated to dryness, and the resi- due was a yellow sohd ; in this instance, as in the last, the quantity was small. This, when heated in the open air on platinum foil to a red dull heat, first melts at about the temper- ature that sulphur melts, and finally the sulphur is burnt off, leaving a carbonaceous residue. When heated in a tube, it sublimes, leaving a black residue. To all appearances this is the same substance, or mixture of substances, that was extracted by the ether, the ether not hav- ing exhausted the graphite in the first treatment. The graphite nodules of the DeKalb and of the Cranbourne irons, on treatment with ether and sulphide of carbon, gave sim- ilar results. In the case of the Cranbourne graphite I had less than one hundred milligrams of the material to operate with, and I hardly hoped to obtain satisfactory results, but I did succeed, however, in obtaining such without the acicular crystals, for the whole residue was less than one milli- gram ; h\it I had enough to recognize the peculiar odor, and also the minute quantity that could be scraped off the vessel in which the evaporation took place furnished the marked reaction by heat of volatilization in part and condensation of the same R, H. Chittenden— Oxidation product of Glycogen. 895 with a carbon residue. The Cranborne graphite requires more Nth the ether than that from the Sevier meteorite 1 being rubbed up. 30ut this peculiar substance wilJ be made a little farther on, when I come to speak of the same compound as obtained from the black or carbonaceous - •- t:. Art. JA.— Contributions frovi the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College. No. XXXVIIL— Ow the Oxidation product of Gly- cogen with Bromine^ Silver Oxide and Water ; by E. H. Chit- TEi^DEN, Ph.B., Assistant in Physiological Chemistry. While submitting an aqueous solution of glycogen to the action of bromine in an open vessel with the aid of heat, it was observed that the strong opacity of the fluid gradually disap- peared, and that, after the removal of the free bromine by partial evaporation, a perfectly clear fluid remained which contained considerable combined bromine. This reaction, indicating union between the glycogen and bromine, pointed to the possibility of the formation of an acid from the glycogen by oxidation, in a manner analogous to the formation of "dextronsaure " from dextrin, and " lactonsaure " from lactose, as described by Uabermann,* Barth and Hlasi- s.f The following experiments were undertaken to form, or oxidation was as follows : ntty grams ot glycogen dried at 100° C, were dissolved in 300 c.c. of distilled water, and this solu- tion transferred to a champagne flask fitted with a caoutchouc stopper, in which was a small stout glass tube drawn out to a point.§ Forty grams of bromine were then added and the stopper ! flask was then heated in a water bath until tl romine had entirely d about two hours' boiling. A heavy ''-'-' ' ^ ■ " ■ ' ■ ' Dleteiy disappeared by tue I up. At the end of this first treatment the fluid was perfectly clear and of a pale yellow vapors of bromine had entirely disappeared, which required color. Afler cooling, the gases were allowed to escape, by breaking the end of the tube in the cork, and, being collected, were found to consist mainly of carbonic acid and bromoforr The stopper was then removed and 40 grams more bromii t This Journal, III, vol. x, p.' 26. gAimalen de'r Ch. i p'harm., clii, 316. 396 R. H. Chittenden— Oxidation product of Glycogen. added. The flask was then closed and heated as before until the bromine had all been taken up, after which, on cooling, the gases were liberated and 40 grams more bromine added, and the flask treated as before. After this, 10 grams of bromine were added three times, so that 160 grams of bromine were employed in the oxidation of 50 grams of dried glycogen. The fluid was then transferred to an evaporating dish and heated on a water-bath until somewhat concentrated. When cool the fluid was diluted with an equal volume of water, then mixed with freshly precipitated and thoroughly washed silver oxide until all bromine was removed from the fluid. After the silver bromide had completely settled, the fluid was filtered off and the silver contained in it precipitated by hydrogen sulphide. The silver sulphide was removed by filtration, and the filtrate upon partial evaporation left a yellowish-red fluid with strong acid taste and reaction. This was an impure solution of an acid which decomposed carbonates with avidity. In this manner 150 grams of dried glycogen were oxidized, in parts of 50, giving in all sufficient acid for the following exper- iments. Two methods of purification were employed. The first consisted in treating this impure solution of "the acid with chemically pure animal charcoal, and precipitating the filtrate with an excess of alcohol, to remove inorganic salts derived from the glycogen, which the latter always contains in sn-iall quantity. This alcoholic filtrate is evaporated on the water- bath, when a moderately pure solution of the acid results. The second and better method, however, is to treat the impure acid with pure calcium carbonate, on the water-bath, when a solu- ble calcium salt is obtained which is filtered off", and, after concen- tration, crystallizes out on standing several days. After washing the crystals with a little cold water, they are dissolved in a large quantity of hot water, and precipitated while still hot by basic lead acetate. This precipitate of a lead salt of the acid is washed with hot water, then emulsionized with water and decomposed by hydrogen sulphide. The lead sulphide is removed by filtra- tion, the fluid evaporated, and then mixed with an excess of dilute alcohol. The precipitate, if any forms, is filtered off, and the filtrate on evaporation leaves the pure acid as a thick colorless syrup, which, after standing several months, shows as yet no signs of crystallization. A solution of the acid in water has an acid reaction on litmus ; a strong acid taste ; is not pre- cipitated by alcohol, and dissolves freshly precipitated hydrated copper oxide to an azure-blue fluid, which remains blue when heated, but after long boiling shows strong reducing action. Calcium Salt.— On treating an aqueous solution of the acid with calcium carbonate, on the water-bath, a violent evolution of carbonic acid takes place, and, after some time, a soluble calcium B. H. Chittenden— Oxidation product oj Glycogen. 397 salt can be filtered off from the excess of calcium carbonate. If the solution is at all colored it can be purified by animal charcoal. When suitably concentrated, this solution on standing several days, changes into a mass of irregular white globules, which are aggregations of fine microscopic needles. The air-dried salt, when heated to 100° C. loses only hygro- scopic water, and, when heated above 100° C. turns brown, which would indicate decomposition. The salt after crystalli- zation is difficultly soluble in cold water ; readily soluble in hot water, and is precipitated from its aqueous solution by alcohol. The analysis of the salt gave the formula: CgH, ,Ca'0,. I. 0-2097 grams of the salt dried at 100° C. gave -2552 grams CO2 and -1015 grams HgO. II. 0-317 grams of the dried salt gave '3851 grams COg and ■1508 grams HgO. ni. 0-3305 grams of the dried salt gave -0429 grams CaO. IV. 0-272 grams of the dried salt gave -036 grams CaO. ... 1 of the £ bath \ a soluble barium salt of the acid results. The salt thus formed does not crystallize readily from this solution. Alcohol is then added in excess to the fluid, when a heavy white precipitate forms, flocculent at first, but soon becoming gummy. This precipitate is washed with alcohol, and after drying has the appearance of a hard yellow gum. The gum-like mass is dis- solved in water, filtered through animal charcoal, and evaporated to a small bulk, when, after standing a week, the fluid is con- verted into a mass of quite large, white, glassy prisms, which The analysis of the salt dried at 100° C. gave the formula : C«H,,Ba'0,. The air-dried salt gave the formula: C^H.^Ba' 0,-fl^H,0. I. 0-347 grams of the salt dried at 100° C. gave -3488 grams CO2 and -1402 grams H3O. II. 0-2778 grams of the dried salt gave -2793 grams COg and '1102 grams HgO. m. 0-498 grams of the dried salt gave -1872 grams BaCOa. IV. 0-3117 grams of dried salt gave -1175 grams BaCOg. V. 1-2257 grams of the air-dried salt gave by drying at 100° C. •11542 grams H2O. '. Chittenden — Oxidation product of Glycogen. Ba'* 25-99 26-14 26-21 O, 42-64 HHaO 9-64 .--. 9-41 The crystals of this salt are very readily soluble in hot and cold water, 'but insoluble in alcohol. The air-dried crystals when placed over concentrated sul- phuric acid lose 642 per cent of water. The calculated amount for one molecule of water is 6-74 per cent. On drying the crystals at 100° C. the remaining one-half molecule is driven off. Heated at 120° C. the crystals turn brown and swell up. Cadmium Salt. — On treating an aqueous solution of the acid with cadmium carbonate, on the water- bath, a soluble cadmium salt is obtained which does not crystallize. The salt is precipi- tated from its solution by three or four volumes of alcohol, then redissolved in water, filtered through animal charcoal, and re- precipitated by alcohol. It is thrown down from its solution as a flocculent precipitate which soon becomes gummy, and when hard yields on trituration a perfectly white powder. The analysis of the salt dried at 100° "C. gave the formula : C,H,,Cd'd,. I. 0-3924 grams of the salt dried at 100° C. gave -4105 grams COg and -1618 grams H2O. II. 0-3544 grams of the dned salt gave •3'702 grams CO2 and •1412 grams HgO. Cd't 22-31 22-V6 22-29 O, 44-70 Cobalt Salt — On heating an aqueous solution of the acid with cobaltic carbonate, on the water-bath, a cherry-red solution of a cobalt salt of the acid, is obtained, which does not crystal- lize readily from the aqueous solution. On the addition of alcohol to a concentrated or only moderately dilute solution of this salt, a heavy pink colored precipitate forms which soon becomes gummy. This precipitate, after being washed with alcohol and dried at 100° C. gave by analysis the formula: CgH, iCo'O,. ♦Ba'=68-6. tCd'=56. R. H. Chittenden— Oxidation product of Glycogen. 399 0-2V9 grams of the salt dried at 100° C, gave '325 grams CO2 and -1213 grams HgO. 0-283 grams of the dried salt gave -3325 grams Cog and •1200 grams HgO. 0-2005 grams of the dried salt gave -0268 grams Co, Cg 32-07 31-76 32-04 H,, 4-89 4-83 4-71 Co'* 13-14 .... .... 13-36 O7 49-89 From a very dilute solution in water, the cobalt salt is precipi- tated by alcoliol in the form of pink flocks. On allowing this precipitate to stand several weeks in the alcoholic fluid, it will be found to liave changed its form, and under the microscope, will be seen to consist of fine needle-shaped crystals. These crystals dried at 100° C. gave by analysis the formula : CgH, , CoO.+H^O. I. 0-219 grams of the salt dried at 100° C. gave -2372 grams CO2 and -108 grams HgO. II, 0-2992 grams of the dried salt gave -3225 grams COg and •1484 grams H.,0. Ill 0-2052 grams of the dried salt gave -0254 grams Co. Co'* 1216 --.. ...- 12-37 Og 52-78 Manganese Salt — A solution of the acid treated, as in the preceding methods, with manganic carbonate, forms a soluble manganese salt which separates from the suitably concentrated fluid in masses of fine microscopic feather-like crystals. These crystals upon close examination are seen to be made up of ra- diating needles. When agitated in water they have a brilliant silky luster. They are slightly yellow, soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. The salt dried at 100° C, gave by analysis the formula: C,H, ,MnO,. I. 0-305 grams of the salt dried at 100° C, gave -362 grams Cog and -142 grams HgO. II. 0-353 grams of the dried salt gave -062 grams MugO^- 400 R H. Chittenden— Oxidation product of Glycogen. Lead Salt. — On treating an aqueous solution of the calcium salt with basic lead acetate, best with the application of heat, a heavy white gelatinous precipitate is obtained, which after washing with hot water and drying at 100° C, yielded by analysis the formula: C,H,Pb,0,. L 0-280 grams of the salt dried at 100° C. gave -115 grams CO, and -0358 grams H^O. II. 0-3855 grams of the dried salt gave -1645 grams COg and •0505 grams HgO, III. 0-436 grams of the dried salt gave -3212 grams PbO. IV. 0-1522 grams of the dried salt gave -1122 grams PbO. similar precipitate is obtained with basic lead precipitates, after washing with water and drying at 100° C, gave by analysis the following results : Precipitate produced by Precipitate produced by 11-60 C 11-42 H 1-42 H 1-55 Pb 68] 9 Pb 68-66 O 18-79 O 18-37 A silver salt was also obtained as a flocculent precipitate. This was not analyzed. By a backward glance we see that in all the salts obtained, with the exception of the lead salt, the acid acts as a monobasic acid. In the case of the lead salt, 'however, four atoms of hy- drogen are replaced by two atoms of the metal. Hlasiwetz in an article upon the basicity of "lactonsaure " and " gluconsiiure,"* in which he shows that these acids are not only monobasic but also dibasic, gives a method whereby he obtained a dibasic barium salt from a monobasic calcium salt. On treating an aqueous solution of the monobasic calcium salt of this acid in the same manner, viz: with baryta water, and heating to boil- ing, a white flocculent precipitate is obtained, which after washing with hot water and drying at 100° C. gave by analysis the formula: CgH,,Ba"0-. I. 0-282 grams of the salt dried at 100° C. gave -2192 grame CO2 and -0905 grams H3O. II. 0-1585 grams of the dried salt gave '1235 grams COg and •0505 grams HgO. Ill 0-3255 grams of the dried salt gave -192 grams BaCOg. * Annalen der Ch. u. Pharm., clviii, 253. B. Owen— Existence or not of Horns in the Dlnocerata. 401 The formation of this salt, together with the lead salt, shows that from this acid both monobasic and dibasic salts can be formed. The formula of the acid is CgH, 3O7 and in the oxidation of the glycogen we can assume that the following reactions take place: C,H, „0,+H30+2Br=C,H,20,Br,. Adding silver oxide to the bromine compound we have : C,H, ^OgBr^ -fAg,0=C,H, 3O, +2AgBr. From analogy, it would seem proper to apply to this acid the name glycogen acid. The preceding analyses and reactions show conclusively that by the action of bromine, water and silver oxide on glycogen, an acid is formed which bears the same relation to glycogen as "dextronsaure" to dextrin. On comparing this acid with the descriptions of " gluconsaure "* and " dextronsaure, "f we see that the glycogen acid differs from the two no more than the two differ from each other. There is also the same relationship existing between glycogen acid and the acid or acids obtained by the oxidation of amylum and paramylum:}: by Haberman, which latter show but few points of difference from " glucon- saure "and "dextronsaure." February 26th, 1876. Aet. lAL—On the existence or not of Horns in the Dinocerata ; by Richard Owen. (Letter to the Editors of this Journal, dated London, Feb. 24, 1876.) Gentlemen : Among the new forms of extinct Eocene mammals of America, for which science is indebted to Professor O. C. Marsh, those which he refers to "the new order Dinocerata'' are the most singular. The study of their characters, especially as described and illus- trated in your Joumal,§ has led me to s ' " " subject of " horns. " These weapons in ported by bone, are either " autogenous " "epiphyses" or "apophyses;" terms wh either, that the horn is ossified from an i fl § Yol. 3 ;, p. 163. 402 R. Owen — Existmce or not of Horns in the Dinocerata. afterwards coalesces with a cranial bone, or that it grows, as a process, from a cranial bone. The giraffe yields an instance of the " autogenous " horn, and its skull, in either the recent or fossil state, shows the basal sutures. In other species the horns or horn-cores are " exogenous ;" and such, in the absence of the sutural evidence, are the parts called " horn-cores " in the Dinocerata. But before elevations or processes of cranial bones can be pro- nounced to be " horn-cores," the evidence of the horns they sup- ported should be forthcoming. Paleontology, it is true, infers the existence of horns supported on bony bases, or " horn-cores," in ex- tinct species in which such horns have perished, hos antiquics^ Bison prisms, Sivathervwn, Bramatherium, are rightly referred to the " hollow-horned " group, and the two latter may seem more germain to the present question, seeing that the " horn-cores " are in two pairs. Such conclusion is based on the presence of foramina and ramified grooves upon the surface of the " cores," which are known to be the effects of the penetration and pressure of blood- vessels supplying the growth and renovation of the horny sheaths of such bony processes. The same evidence reveals the true na. ture of the horn-cores, which may be covered with skin instead of horn, such as are the horns of deer, from which when complete the skin is shed. In the absence of such evidence the paleontologist infers that smooth un furrowed protuberances or processes of cranial bones were covered, like the rest of the outer surface of the bones devel- oping them, with persistent periosteum and skin, in the existing animal. He refrains from calling them " horn-cores," and from defining the extinct species manifesting them, as " horned," " four- homed," or " six-horned," Bicerata, Tetracerata, Hexacerata ; or, as in the case of the hornless herbivores of the Wyoming Eocene, Binocerata : because such tei-ms imply the possession by those ex- tinct quadrupeds of weapons of which there has not, at present, been given any evidence. Professor Marsh, indeed, candidly admits in regard to the pro- tuberances which suggested the generic name Binoceras, that they " may possibly have been covered with thick skm and not with true horn."f But we have no evidence of the integument having been thicker, or other on the protuberances than on the cranial bones developing them. It may be noted that the hornless exceptions in the group of existing herbivorous quadrupeds with true horn-cores and horns, the hornless Moschidce, e. g., are furnished with other weapons of defense, a pair, namely, of long, edged, and sharp-pointed canines descending from the upper jaw. The hornless Binoceras was similarly armed, and Professor Marsh believes he has evidence of a sexual difference of size in those dental weapons, which would yield another analogy to the existing Musk-deer. But the dental and osteal characters of the tLoc.cit.,p.l64. Chemistry and Physics. 408 pentadactyle Dinoceras are consistently " perissodactyle." The truly remarkable peculiarity of its skull is the tendency of the outer wall of the bones to extend into ridges and bosses ; and this not only in the cranium proper and upper jaw, but also in the lower jaw. If these bosses were legitimately interpretable as "hom-cores," we must give the animal a pair of horns descending from the under and forepart of the mandible to match the pair ascending from the maxilla. But the singular processes descend- ing and diverging, as a pair, from the mandibular rami, show as marked an absence of any indication of their having been sheathed with horn as do the pairs of protuberances from the nasal, maxil- lary, and the frontal bones above. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGEI^ I. Chemist KY and Physics. 1. Biplometer. — M. Landolf has invented an measuring the diameter of objects without touching them and in- dependently of their movements. A wedge-shaped piece of glass is cut in two along a plane perpendicular to the edge of the wedge, and joined togetlier again after turning one piece 1 80°. Looking through the line of junction of the prisms, objects will appear double, because the prisms will deviate the rays in oppo- site directions. When the two images appear just in contact the doubling will be just equal to the diameter of the object. Hence knowing the distance we can compute the diameter, or vice versa. The prisms slide over a graduated rod so that the object being placed at one end they are moved until the two images are just in contact, w^hen the distance furnishes a ready means of determin- ing the diameter. In the instrument actually constructed a dis- sequently tenths of a millimeter were readUy measured. Evi- dently motions of the object do not affect the measure since both images move together.— Comjo^es Jiendus, Ixxxii, 424. [Numerous applications of this instrument will suggest them- selves. In natural history the dimensions of various parts of ani- mals or plants, whether large or small may be found, and in physics objects which cannot be touched, as bubbles, vibrating bodies, &c., may be quickly measured. By setting the prisms as an eye-glass this instrument would form a convenient substitute for a telescope, m measuring distances with a telemeter.] e. c. p. 2. Specific Meat of Gases.— M. Wiedemax.v has published in full his measurements of the specific heat of gases referred to m a fecent number of this Journal (cviii, 465). His results are given m the following table in which the first column gives the name of the gas, and the second, third and fourth its specific heat under constant pressure at temperatures of 0°, 100° and 200°. The last Scientific Intelligence. 1 give the corresponding specific heats under const Constant Pressure. Constant Volume. Carbonic oxide, -2426 Carbonic acid, '1952 -2169 -Pogg. Ann., clvii, 1. 3. Crooke's Radiometer. — Mr. G. J. Stone ;rooKes naaiomeier. — Mr. ir. j. stone y presents an expia- of the apparent repulsion produced by heat, according to ine mnetic theory of gases. Mr. Crookes has shown that the pressure produced on a blackened surface of two square inches by the light of a standard candle six inches distant would be -001772 grains or somewhat less than -01 milligram per square centimeter. Assuming that the pressure of the air in the interior is reduced to •1 mm. there would still be something like a hundred million of millions of atoms in each cubic millimeter. These atoms will con- sist in part of oxygen and nitrogen from the air, of mercury and hydrocarbons, and probably in part of platinum, glass and other substances in a gaseous form. The blackened surface will be heated by the candle more than the glass by an amount which may be assumed at -1° and the air in contact with it will vary in temperature from that of the disk to that of the enclosing air. Were the air at its ordinary pres- sure the heated layer would be very thin, and may be estimated at about -0005 mm., or about the wave-length of green light. With the small pressure here employed, however, the case is quite different, and the thickness of the laver would equal -0005 X (7600)1-3 3, o,, oypj. a decimeter. The heated layer therefore ex- tends to the wall of the surrounding vessel, and now a heat engine is formed by the particles of air which strike the disk with a veloc- ity due to a temperature of perhaps 15°, and are repelled from it with a velocity due to its temperature of 15'1°. The resultant pressure on the disk may be readily computed and is found to be •0115 milligram which agrees closely with -01, as observed by Mr. Crookes. In other words a difference of temperature of -l" C. is sufficient to account for the observed pressure,— PM. Mag., 1, 177. ; here referred to, is described in Engineering, [Tl Feb. 18th, and was effected in the following manner : A torsion balance was constructed wdth a horizontal glass fiber and with a horizontal arm terminating in a cup at one end and in a disk of pith at the other. A small piece of iron weighing a hundredth of a grain was raised by a magnet and dropped into the cup. ^ It was then found that the fiber must be turned through 100021 to bring the arm back to its original position. The light of a candle at a distance of 6 inches w^as next allowed to fall on the pith, when a torsion of 1775'* was required to bring it back. This corres- Chemistry and Physics. 405 )niis to -001772 grains, or about an eighth of a grain per square ot. From this it would api)ear that the light of the sun would i equivalent to 32 grains per square foot or 57 tons per square ile. Mr. Crookes further applies this instrument as a photometer id suggests its application to observatories to determine the tal amount of sunlight received during the year. The number ' revolutions could be counted by attaching a magnet to the diometer which should act on a magnetic needle moving a unter outside of the glass case. Similarly the power of the in- rument might V>e transmitted through the glass without the ual loss by friction. Numerous other articles appear on the same subject. Poggei that the repulsion is due to convection currents. Several articles appear also in ' Nature,' on the radiometer ; on p. 891, Mr. Crookes shows that the repulsion is inversely as the square of the distance and compares the elfect of rays of various wave lengths. On page 324, Mr. Hutchinson states that a radiometer with mica vanes on metallic supports revolves more rapidly with dark heat than with light, but Mr. Crookes replies that pith should be used as the absorbing substance, since metals give erratic results.] e. c. p. 4. The Grant Magneto-electric machine. — M. Tresca has made a careful measurement of the power required to diive a large and a small gram machine and compared the result with the light gen- erated. A photometer disk was used, of which one portion was illuminated only by the electric light and an adjacent portion only by a careel burner consuming 40 grams of oil per hour. Much trouble was experienced from the difference in color of the the equality was best obtained by interposing t of light nd the oth( egularities in^the carbons the light contimni egularities sensible only to the photometer. 'H arger machine was placed 40 meters from the dh burner moved until the square of their dis 1850: 1, which was about the mean ratio of the two lights. When the two portions of the disk appeared equally bright the observer gave a signal and instantly the power and velocity were observed. The larger machine had a length of 80 cms., width 55 cuhs., and height 58o cms. The average number of turns per minute was 1274, and the work 576 killograra meters or 7-68 horse-power. The light being 1850 burners, would equal -415 of a horse-power per 100 burners, or -31 kgms. per burner. The smaller machine had a length of 65 cms., breadth of 41 cms., and height of 50-6 cms. It made 872 turns per minute, and gave a light of 302-4 burners. This required 211 kgms., or 2-8 horse power, equivalent to '92 of a horse power per hundred burners, or '69 kgms. per buraer. The consumption of oil to produce a light equal to that of the larger machine would be about 71 kgs. per hour or 194 cubic Am, Jour. 8ci.— Third Series, Vol. XI, No. 65.~Mat, 1876. 406 Scientific Intelligence. meters of gas. The cost of the oil would be therefore in Paris about a hundred times that of the electric light, or that of gas fifty times, to produce the same light. The comparison with the smaller machine woiild be less favorable. The carbons for the larger light had a cross section of 81 mms., and the ordinary con- sumption was a little over a centimeter in length per hour,— Comptes Eendu9, Ixxxii, 299. e. c. p. _ "-" - oy increase of temperature on the Index of Refraction ; m TT. T.r ^ Letter to the editors, dated -Dear Sirs : I have in progress an investigation of the effect of increase of temperature on the index of refraction, which has at this time yielded some results of considerable importance to spectroscopists. In 1858 Messrs. Gladstone and Dale announced as the conclusion of a research upon this question, that in every substance the refractive in- dex diminishes as the temperature increases. I am satisfied that glass at least does not obey this law ; that, on the contrary, with it the index increases with the temperature. In my experiments I have used equilateral glass prisms with indices of refraction of about 1-63. The change in the position of the D line has been observed with a parallel wire micrometer. That the effect was not due to a change in the angle of the prism during the process of cooling I satisfied myself — both by measurement of the angle when hot and when cold — and by receiving the image of the slit of the collimator reflected from both faces upon the cross hairs of two telescopes properly adjusted upon the instrument. No appreciable change in angle could be discovered. Numerous ex- periments agree well in fixing the " index of sensitiveness," but the quantitative results I have not fully worked out. I only wish at present to direct attention to the fact, that, in the use of a train of several glass prisms in a spectroscope, ordinary changes of temperature to which the instrument may be subjected will produce a very noticeable change in the position of the spectrum lines. In my own, of five large prisms, of an angle of 64°, the change in the position of the D line on removing the prisms from an open window, the temperature outside being about 32° F., to the room, at ordinary temperature was as much as 95 divisions of the micrometer screw head. With a smaller number of j)ri8m8 the change was closely proportioned to that number. I wish suggest that in this way may be found the cause of many discrep- ancies which occur in tables of wave-lengths, as furnished by dif- ferent workers, in such cases as those in which the dispersion spec- trum has been made use of, and the wave-length computed by in- terpolation. A great many such cases occur in Watt's Index oi spectra. In an instrument of many prisms the observation oi temperature will be a matter of vital importance in fixing the exact position of a line. I propose to pursue the investigation, especially in respect to the observation of lines more or less re- frangible than the D, and also as to the effect of change of temper- ature upon other than glass prisms. Geology and Mineralogy. 11. Geology and Mineralogy. 1. Does the actual vegetation of the Olobe fur?iish any general marks by which it could he recognized in all countries if it became fossil f— This question is asked by Alph. DeCandolle in a brief ar- ticle in the Archives des Sciences of Geneva for December, 1875, The question is answered in the negative, as was inevitable. For, as the author observes, the species of plants over the globe differ so widely with difference of locality that it would be exceedingly difficult, or rather, impossible, to draw the line between differences in species due to local distributions, and those due to successional relations. The difficulties, moreover, are greatly increased through the fact, well illustrated by Dr. Gray, that the vegetation of the northern hemisphere has widely changed place during even the Quaternary, and also more than once in earlier time. It hence follows, as DeCandolle urges, that any conclusions as to the suc- cession or cotemporaneity of species in Europe could not be ex- pected to be applicable to America or the other continents ; and even the deposits of the several natural regions of a continent would not admit of being synchronized without great doubts over the conclusions. This special inference is not new to geologists ; for they admit that with the best of evidence they cannot make out, except very uncertainly, the equivalency of the successive rocks of Europe and America. But while this general proposition is well sustained, other ques- tions are suggested by the author which appear to demand a ref- erence to a wider range of facts than his paper considers. Professor DeCandolle seems to regard all fossils as equally poor registers of geological age with plants. It is certain that fossil plants are a most unsatisfactory means of determining equivalency. Mari?ie plants— in wonderful contrast with marine animals — have varied little through the geological ages ; and hence if plants are used at all for chronological purposes we are confined, with hardly an exception, to the terrestrial species. But the terrestrial species, ■'yhile much more diverse than the marine, include only a very limited series of distinct types, and tloras have continued the same or similar through very long ages. Besides, terrestrial species, whether vegetable or animal, are more confined in their distribu- tion through physical conditions than those of sal^water; and, fur- ther, they are far more poorly represented in the rocks than marine species. ' For these reasons, and because of the great doubts that come from migrations, the geologist makes little use of fossil plants exce{)t for the" purpose of characterizing in a general way the floras of the grander divisions of geological time. In actual fact, geolo- gists, in their subdivisions or identifications of formations, have relied almost solely on evidence from fossil animals, and especially marine animals ; and if fossil plants are mentioned as the charac- teristics of a period or age, it has been, with rare exceptions, only after the question of the period or age has been decided by means 408 Scieniific Intelligence. of other evidence. Evidence from these other sources has its doubts, but it is not of so small value as that from plants. This coirjparative want of value is well illustrated by the present wide divergence between Paleophytologists and general Paleontologists with regard to the age of the plant-bearing beds of the Rocky Mountains, the Arctic regions, and Europe. An allusion to the uncertainties of Botanical evidence in the Rocky Mountain region may be found on page 149 of this volume. But Prof. DeCandolle makes the evidence from plants of less value, we think, than is reasonable. He says : No one would dare to assert that during the progress of a given bed of Pennsylvania coal, there did not exist somewhere, perhaps far away, an elevated region less moist, on which Angiosperms were already in existence. The supposition is a forced one. For, in Cretaceous and Tertiary times, Angiosperms were the plants of moist lands, their leaves abounding in the coal-formations of those eras ; and it is hence natural that they should have abounded in moist places also in the Carboniferous age, if in existence then along with the Acrogens and Gymnosperms. In the Oarboniferous period of North America, the peat-making marshes at times spread from Eastern Pennsylvania to Western Iowa and Arkansas, covering an area of more than 500,000 square miles; and, at the same time, there were dry hills or mountains along the borders of the marshes, in New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Wisconsin, Missouri, Arkansas, through all that long age. The Adirondacks were certainly in existence, and the Green Moun- tains, and the Highlands of New Jersey, and other ridges or mountains beyond the Mississippi. The area of those Carbonifer- ous marshes with their surroundings was large enough, and varied enough in surface, to have borne a fair representation of the flora of that era of approximately uniform climate; and still the streams from the hills conveyed, so far as yet discovered, no leaves of Angiosperms to the marshes that bordered the hills. The Coal-measures of the Arctic bear similar testimony, whether there by migration or not, and so do those of Europe. Further, Permian, Triassic and Jurassic beds overlie the Coal fonuation both m America and Europe and have afforded no remains of Angiosperms. It is from facts like these that geologists have been led to infer that the flora of those lands during the Carboniferous age had characteristics distinguishing it very decidedly from that of other ages ; and to deem it probable that the precursors of the Angio- sperms existed then in a state unlike that of a Cretaceous or mod- em Angiosperm. Prof. DeCandolle adds, in the same paragraph, that if fossil An- giospermous plants were found by geologists in any rock " that rock would be at once pronounced of the Cretaceous age," [or of later ^ ry generally piams IS noi to be trusted, and make the plants of whatever age the fossil nnimaU present may indicate. The " Cretaceous " plants of the United States are Geology and Mineralogy. 409 the plants of beds which had previously been determined, through the animal fossils, to be Cretaceous; and, if geologists finally con- clude that the flora of the Lignitic beds is all Cretaceous, it will be done on the ground of the animal relics, and in spite of what has been regarded as good botanical evidence. While then there may be doubts over chronological conclusions from fossils of whatever kind, the geologist who surveys the whole field finds those doubts less weighty than they w^ould naturally appear to one who looked at the subject from the botanical side 2. Report of the Geological /Survey of Ohio. Volume II. Geology and Palceontology. — Part. II, Palmontology, (or, as stated on the cover, Paleontology, Vol. II.) 436 pp. roy. 8vo, with over sixty plates. Columbus, Ohio, 1875.— This large volume contains, after a preface, by Dr. J. S. Newberry, the head of the survey, descriptions of Fossil Fishes, by Dr. Newbeeey, pp. 1-64 ; of Silurian Fossils, a?id of Crinoids from the Waverly group, by J. Hall and R. P. Whitfielb, pp. 65-179 ; of Silurian and Devo- nian Corals, by H. A. Njcpiolson, pp. 181-268; of Invertebrate Carboniferous Fossils, by F. B. Meek, pp. 269-347 ; of Carbonif- erous Amphibians, by E. D. Cope, pp. 349-411; of Lower Car- boniferous fossil plants, by E. B. Ajjokews, pp. 413-426. The paleontological work was thus in able hands, and covers a large number of species in each of its departments. The portions giv- ing the most novel results are those of the Fishes and Amphibians, and the Lower Carboniferous plants. Dr. Newberry describes the genus Dinichthys from new and magnificent specimens — including broad plates of the venter and back, fifteen inches to two feet in length, a mandible twenty-two inches long, a cranium almost complete, and other bones — and shows that it was closely related to (Joccosteus. The large ven- tral pieces were five in number. The anterior end of the mandi- ble was turned up so as to form a strong acute prominent tooth, which had a produced dentate margin in one species. The y K. P- Rothwell, published, two years since, in the Engineering and Mining Journal. The coal-series is said to contain ten or twelve veins [seams] of remarkable thickness, i. e., from two feet (average thickness of clean coal) upward, besides a number of smaller beds, several of which are from fifteen to eighteen inches in thickness. These ten or twelve workable beds are distributed in two series or groups, as we find in all our coal-fields, notably in West Virginia, Ohio and Pennsylvania. * * The maximum available thick- ness of coal as yet proved in any portion of the field will not ex- ceed thirty or thirty-five feet ; while, if we take the area of the Oeohgy and Mineralogy. 411 Cahaba field at 230 square miles, the average thickness of worka- ble coal over the entire field would probably scarcely attain fifteen feet. This estimate, so much lower than we have been accustomed to see stated in reports and newspaper articles, is probably not very different from the thickness which the same method of esti- mating would give for any of our other bituminous coal fields. " The enormous thickness of the coal-bearing rocks in the Cahaba field, being estimated at over 5,000 feet, has no parallel in the Warrior coal-field." Record of four borings in the Warrior field show sections of from 400 to 600 feet of strata, including four, seven and eleven coal-horizons. Prof. Lesquereux furnishes a list of 57 species of coal-plants, (of which 12 are named as new,) and remarks upon the veiylow posi- tion in the Coal-measure series to which they must theoretically be assigued, a few species, such as Sternbergia, Lepidodendron Wei- theimianum and AsterophylUtes gracilis, ranging down even into the Devonian. This corresponds with the suggestions already made, by several geologists, that the coal-measures of the Southern States are all very low in the series, the whole having been called '* Bub-conglomerate " by some writers. We should prefer, how- ever, some more certain evidence on this point than has yet been produced. The surveys of Alabama, Georgia and Kentucky, now m progress, will leave but a short gap (in northern Tennessee) between the well-known fields of Pennsylvania and Ohio and the southern extremity of the system. The body of the report is occupied with details of County-work, mostly in the Silurian areas of the State. Some analyses of ores are given, besides lists of elevations. There is also a valuable paper by A. R. Grote, on the cotton-worm {Aktia argillacea Hiibner) which is preliminary, the author states, to a more ex- tended history of the worm. Mr. Grote writes from observations in Alabama on the habits of the worm, and also from a study of it elsewhere. He is an excellent entomologist, and if his reviews are continued in the survey, will add greatfy, by his study of the insects injurious and beneficial, to the value of the State Reports. We understand that the State approjjriation, for the work thus reported on, is only $500 a year to cover the travelling expenses of the geologist during the vacations of the State University, in which institution he is a Professor. The volume may therefore properly be accounted a personal contribution to the cause of science. 4. The Geological Record for 1874.— An account of works on Geology, Mineralogy and Pahieontology, published dunng the year. Edited by William W^hitaker, B.A., F.G.S., of the Geo- logical Survey of England. 398 pp. 8vo. London, 1875. (Taylor & Francis.)— Mr. Whitaker, the editor of the Geological Record, has had able co-workers, and has produced a volume which will be found of great value to all of all lands that are interested in the progress of geological science. The sub-editors are the follow- ing, all members of the Geological Society : W. Topley, G. A. 412 Scientific Intelligence. Lebour, F. Drew, and R. Etheridge, Jr., for Descriptive Geology; Professor A. H. Green, for Physical Geology ; F. W. Rudler, for Mineralogy and Petrology ; and L. C. Miall, Prof. H. A. Nicholson, and \y. Carruthers, for Paleontology. The number of works and memoirs mentioned by title is verylarge, and, for much the larger part, short abstracts are given, which appear to have been